V  • 


X 


k 

^ 


THE 


MYSTERIES  OF  TRADE, 


OR  THE 


GREAT  SOURCE  OF  WEALTH  : 

CONTAINING 
IN 

CHEMISTRY  AND  MANUFACTURING  j 

WITH 

ON  THE  USEFUL  ARTS. 

ORIGINAL  AND  COMPILED. 


By  DAVID  BEMAN. 


Give  me  the  facts,  said  the  noble  Judge,  Thy  conclusions  are  but  the 
guess  work  of  Imagination  which  puzzle  the  brain  and  tend  not  to  solve 
this  mystery.  old  plat. 


PRINTED  FOR  THE  AUTHOR, 

BY  \VM.  BELLAMY. 

182.5. 


DISTRICT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  to  nil  ; 

Distncl  Clerh^s  Office. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  that  on  the  twenty  eighth  day  of  Decen.ber, 
A.  D.  1u''24,  in  the  forly  ninth  year  of  tlie  Inde|)endericc  of  the  United  Stnteg 
of  America,  David  Beman  of  the  said  District,  has  dt  posited  in  this  Office 
the  Title  of  a  Book,  the  Right  whereof  he  claims  as  Author,  in  the  Words 
following,  lo  icit  ; 

"The  Mysteries  of  Trade,  or  the  Great  Source  of  Wealth  :  containing 
Receipts  and  Patents  in  Clieniistry  and  Manufacturing  ;  with  practical  ob- 
servation? on  the  useful  arts.  Original  and  Compiled.  By  David  Beinan. — . 
Give  me  the  facts,  said  the  noble  .judge,  Tiiy  conclusions  are  but  the  guess 
work  of  Imagination,  wiiich  puzzle  the  brain  and  tend  not  lo  solve  this 
mystery.— OW  I'lay.'''' 

In  Conformity  to  the  Act  of  the  Congress  of  tiie  United  States,  entitled 
"An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  map.s, 
charts  and  books,  to  the  authors  ami  jirnprietors  of  such  copies,  during  tlie 
times  therein  mentioned;'"  and  also  to  an  act  entitled  "An  act  supplement- 
ary to  an  act,  entitled,  an  act  for  the  enconragf'ment  of  learning,  by  secur- 
iiisr  tlie  copies  of  maps,  charts  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of 
siich  copies  durinu:  'he  tin;es  then-in  mentioned  ;  and  extending  tlie  benefits 
tiiereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraving  and, etching  historical,  and  other 
prints." 

.1X0.  W.  DAVIS, 

Clerk  of  Lilt   DislncI  of  Massachusefls. 


PREFACE. 


Aware  that  no  work  is  more  liable  to  general  criticism,  than 
one  which  affects  to  treat  of  the  modus  operandi^  adopted  in  the 
several  Arts  and  Manufactures  dependant  on  Chemical  Science  ; 
the  Author,  at  the  commencement,  perceived  that  a  strict  adher- 
ence to  the  accounts  and  opinions,  even,  of  the  most  approved 
Chemical  writers,  would  be  far  from  satisfactory  to  himself;  and 
would,  in  some  cases,  prove  delusive  to  his  readers  He  likewise 
foresaw,  that,  although  a  general  reader  might,  without  iarther 
inquiry,  acknowledge  or  allow  as  true,  every  process  and  fact 
comprehended  in  the  following  pages  ; — some  who  should  honour 
his  labours  by  a  perusal,  might  be  more  fastidious  ;  and  by  calling 
in  question  the  truth  of  a  few  particular  facts,  processes,  or  opin- 
ions; might  be  apt  to  pass  sentence  upon  the  whole.  These  con- 
siderations, conjoined  with  an  ardent  desire  of  becoming  practi- 
cally acquainted  with  several  of  the  Chemical  Arts,  induced  him, 
on  many  occasions,  to  seek  for  information,  at  its  ultimately  gen- 
uine source  ;  viz.  the  work  shop  of  the  Artisan.  The  facts  thus 
collected,  and  others  already  known,  have  been  blended  together  : 
and  the  Author,  in  the  belief  that  he  has  advanced  nothing  but 
what  is  strictly  correct,  trusts  that  as  a  whole,  they  will  prove 
useful,  not  only  to  the  Chemical  Student,  but  also  to  the  Manufac- 
turer, and  to  the  Economist. 

Regarding  the  order  of  the  work,  he  would  say,  that  notwith- 
standing the  elaborate  researches,  and  ingenious  speculations  of 
many  learned  men  in  the  several  departments  of  Chemical 
Science  ;  there  are  few  so  perfectly  developed,  as  to  admit  of  a 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  principles  deduced  from  them  : 
consequently  any  attempt  at  forming  a  system,  where  the  founda- 
tion and  other  parts  of  the  superstructure  are  incomplete,  would 
prove  abortive.  It  is  for  this  '"eason  that  attempts  to  systematise 
Chemistry,  have  in  every  instance,  been  productive  of  failure. — 
In  the  present  work,  nothing  further  has  been  attempted,  in  the 
way  of  arrangement,  than  a  generalisation  of  facts  ;  and  those 
tacts,  or  Receipts,  or  Patents,  as  they  are  termed,  are  arranged 
either  according  to  their  Chemical  relation,  or  according  to  their 
nature,  and  importance  in  the  Arts. 

Boston^  January^   1825. 


TO  THE  PUBLIC, 

WHO  ARE  WELL  QUALIFIED  TO  JUDGE  OF  MERIT  OR  DEMERIT. 

On  completing  a  work  wliicli  is  intended  to  pre- 
sent the  most  important  results  of  the  application  of 
a  science  to  the  Useful  Arts ;  and  to  shew  to  m  hat 
extent  it  has  contributed  to  the  welfare  and  comfort 
of  social  life  ;  I  felt  desirous  of  dedicating  it  to  you, 
(in  preference  to  any  individual,)  in  whom  the  knowl- 
edge of  judging  most  assuredly  rests.  And  of  the 
more  refined  productions  of  human  intelligence. — 
Permit  me  to  thank  you  for  allowing  me  the  liberty 
of  thus  assuring  }  ou  of  my  most  sincere  esteem. 

DAVID  BEMAN. 

Boston,  January,  182r>. 


CONTEXTS. 


Fermentation  and  Distillation  .  -  .  .  -9 

General  Observations  -  -  -  -  -  -       9 

Brewing,  or  Ihe  preparation  of  Fermented  Liquors  -  -  10 

Preparation  of  London  Porter    -  -  -  -  -  -     15 

Quantity  of  Ingredients  necessary  for  Brewing  5  gallons  Porter        -  17 

Preparation  of  Ale  ...  ....22 

Preparation  of  Small  Beer  .  -  •  .  -  23 

Preparation  of  Ten  Barrels  of  Table  Beer  -  -  -  -       24 

General  Observations  on  the  qualities  of  ihe  Ingredients  used  in  Malt 

Liquors        -------  2A 

To  prevent  Beer  from  growing  Flat       -  -  -  .  -      28 

To  recover  Beer  when  Sour  -----  23 

.To  Bottle  Porter        -  ......28 

Cheap  and  wholesome  Table  Beer  -  -  -  -  29 

Ginger  Deer  -------29 

AVines  -  ......  30 

Currant  Wine  -  -  -  -  -  .  -       30 

Another  Method  ......  3| 

Gooseberry  Wine  ------.31 

British  Champaigne  -----  32 

Elder  Wine  .......       33 

Elder  Flower  Wine  ......  33 

Merella  Wine  .......34 

Cherry  Wine  -.-----  34 

Peach  and  Apricot  W^ine  ...  -  -  -       35 

Excellent  Coiapound  Wine  -----  35 

Quince  Wine  ...  .-..35 

Birch  Wine  .......  37 

Orange  Wine  -  -  -  -  -  -  -38 

Ginger  Wine  ..----.38 

Parrnip  Wine  ......  39 

Imitation  of  Cyprus  Wine         -  -  -  -  -  -      39 

Mead  .......  39 

Cowslip  Wine  .......      40 

Gilliflower  Wine  -  .  -  .  _  -  40 

Mulberry  Wine  -  -  .  -  -  -  -       41 

Raspberry  Wine  -  -  -  -  -  -  41 

French  Method  -  ......4g 


6  CONTENTS. 

Damson  Wine     -  ------42 

American  Wine                    -                -                -         .       -  43 

Raisin  Wine                    ....                 -  44 

Raisin  Wine,  equal  to  Sherry              -                -                -  -          44 

Grape  Wine                   -                ....  45 

Spanish  and  Portuguese  Wines            -                -                -  -          46 

Synthetical  Preparation  of  Foreign  Wines     -                 -                 -  50 

Conversion  of  Starch  into  Sugar          -                 -                 -  -           51 

Conversion  of  Wood,  Straw,  Rags,  Gum,  Hemp  and  Gelatine  into  Sugar  51 

Distillation                       .....  53 

Directions  and  apparatus  for  Distilling                 -            «   -  -          55 

Imitation  of  Rum,  Brandy,  and  Geneva       -                 -                 -  62 

French  Test  for  good  Brandy              -                -                -  -          C4 

Brandy               .             .                 ....  65 

Imitation  of  Cogniac  Brandy                -                -                -  -           65 

British  Brandy  .......  68 

The  Mystery  of  Trade                    .                 ...  69 

The  Great  Source  of  Wealth             ....  69 

Gin                 ......  69 

Process  of  Preparing  Gin  in  Holland                    -                 -  -           69 

Rum                ......  72 

Distillation  of  Rum  in  the  West  Indies                -                -  -           72 

Sugar,  and  Cane  Spirit                    -                 -                 -                 -  74 

Iiuitation  of  Jaiuaica  Rum                    -                 -                 -  -           74 

Whiskey         ......  74 

Spirits  Distilled  from  Carrots                -                 -                 .  -           74 

Cordials          .---..  77 

Usquebaugh                           -                 -                 -                 -  -           77 

Lavender  Spirit               -                 -                 ...  77 

Hungary  Water                     -                 -                 -                 •  -           78 

Ciunamoa  Cordial          .                 .                 .                 .                 -  7y 

Coccus  Cacti. — Cochineal                   -                -                -  -           79 

Vinegar           ----..  iJO 

Acetous  Fermentation         -                 -                 -                 -  -           CO 

Vinegar  made  from  Flour  and  Water  with  Yeast           -                 -  81 

Vinegar  made  from  Sugar  and  Water  with  Ysast                -  -          t>2 

Sugar,  Alcohol,  and  VV'ater  with  Yeast                -                 -  -           82 

Excess  of  Sugar  with  VV  ater           -                  -                  -                  -  82 

Sugar  and  Water  with  Alcohol,  in  sntall  proportion             -  -           83 

Sugai\j  Gum,  and  V\  ater  with  Ytast                -                  -                  -  83 

Sugar,  and  Water  wiih  excess  of  Yeast                -                 -  -           83 

Approved  proportions  of  Ingredients  for  the  Best  \'inegar            -  84 

Diminution  of  the  above  quantity  of  Water         -                 -  -           Gl 

Approved  proportions  for  the  conversion  of  Alcohol  into  Vinegar  85 

Comoiou -Metijod  of  ilaUing  \'intgur                   -                 -  -           JIT 


CONTENTS. 


Gooseberry  and  Raspberry  ^'inegar               -                -                -  88 

Primrose  Vinegar                  -                 -                 -                 -                -  88 

Vinegar,  from  the  refuse  of  bee-hives            -                -                -  89 

Bread                    ......  90 

Panary  Fermentation                      ....  90 

Respiration  of  Carbonic  Acid  Gas  in  Baker''i  work-shops                   -  91 
Infaiuous  Adulteration  of  Baker's  Bread  by  Alum,  &c.                  -  93 
Preparation  of  Bread,  according  to  tiie  Method  practicsed  by  the  Lon- 
don Bakers             -                 -                 .                 -                 -  94 
Preparation  of  Household  Bread                    -                 -                 -  95 
Method  of  producing   one  third  more   Bread    from  a  given  quantity  of 

Wheat                     -                 -                 -                 -                 -  95 

Bread  made  of  Iceland  Moss,  with  Flour      -                 -                 -  96 

Leather                 -                 -                 -                 -                 -                 -  97 

Conversion  of  Animal  Hides  into  Leather             -         -                  -  97 

Patent  method  of  Tanning  Leather  by  the  Decoction  of  Bark,  Sic.  103 

Conversion  of  Sheep  Skip^  into  Leather             -                 -                 -  105 

Manufacture  of  Real  Morocco  Leather      .                  -                 -  107 

Manufacture  of  Russia  Leather           ....  108 

Method  of  Tanning  Fish  and  other  Xets         -                  -             -  109 

Tests                     -                 -                 -                 -                 -                 -  110 

Experiments  on  'he  Discovery  of  certain  Substances  in   combination 

with  others,  by  means  of   Tests         -             -                  -  HO 
Proof  by  l^umerio  Paper  that  Potassium  is  the  Base  of  Potass,  and  So- 
dium of  Soda          -                 -                 .                 .                 .  110 
Test  to  discover  the  presence  of  Gold  in  Solution       -                -  111 
Test  for  Lead  and  Copper  in  Wine,  Cider,  Perry,  &€.          -             -  111 
Another  method            -                 -                 -                 -                 -  112 

Test  to  Detect  Alum  in  Red  Wine                      -                 -                 -  113 

Test  to  detect  the  Adulteration  of  Essential  Gils            .                 .  114 

Solvent  for  Silver  and  Tests  for  its  Adulteration  by  other  Metals  114 

Muriate  of  Tin  a  Test  for  Tannin                -                 .                 -  115 

Test  for  the  Purity  of  Alcohol              -                 -                -                 -  115 

To  detect  the  Adulteration  of  Tea               -                 -                 -  lift 

Blacking  Balls  for  Shoes                        -                 -                 -                 -  117 

Liquid  Japan  Blacking                  .                  .                 ,                 .  117 
Cheap  method  of  Making  Blacking                       ,                  .                  ,117 

Another  Method            .....  118 

Successful  method  of  Curing  Batter                      .                 .                 .  118 

Manufacture  of  Parmesan  Cheese                 .                 -                 ,  120 

Cider                      ...                  ...  122 

Receipt  to  make  Cider                 ....  127 

White  Colours  in  Paintings  Restored                   .                 .                 .  129 

To  Restore  the  Lustre  of  Gold  or  Silver  Lace              -                 .  130 

AVhiteniug  Silver  by  boiling                   ....  130 


8 


CONTENTS. 


Method  of  Cleaning  Bilks,  Woolens  and  Cottons  without  damage  to 

their  Texture  or  Colour           .               .                 ,                 .  130 

Scouring  Balls           .                    .                -                .                .  131 

Method  of  Seasoning  Mahogany           ....  132 

Mode  of  Painting  Sail  Cloth,  &c.  -    as  to  be  pliant,   durable  and  im- 
pervious to  water                                 .                 .                 .  133 
Varnish  for  Boots  and  Shoes,  by  which  they  are  rendered  impervious 

to  water                        ....  134 

Method  of  Varnishing  Hats  so  as  to  be  impervious  to  water                .  135 

Excellent  Vami.^i  for  Silks,  kc.                   ....  136 

Piiable  Varnish  for  Umbrellas,  Balloons,  kc.              .             .             .  137 

Varnish  for  Indian  Shields                 .             .             .             .             .  138 

Frtnoh  Varnish  for  Cabinets  .  .  .  .  .139 

Copal  Varnish          .......  140 

Varnish  for  Oil  Paintings  .  .  .  .  .141 

Ijacquer  or  Varnish  for  Tin  Ware                   .             .            .            .  141 

Lacquer  for  Br^ss  Work                   .....  142 

Preparation  of  Pyroligneous  Acid  -  .  .  .142 

En-lish  Method  of  Curing  Bf^ef  and  Pork                ...  144 

Preservation  of  Animal  Food  from  Piitrifaction,  by  Charcoal              .  150 

English  method  of  Curing  Hams,  Tongues,  &o.     ...  151 


^AmwABm^i  rms^ii^^s. 


FERMENTATION  AND  DISTILLATIONo 


GENERAL    OBSERVATION!?. 

THE  arts  of  fermentation  and  distillation  have 
been  practised  from  the  most  remote  antiquity  ;  they 
consist,  in  the  first  place,  in  the  preparation  of  a 
vinous,  or  spiritous  liquid,  from  farinaceous  substances 
capable  of  being  converted  into  saccharine  matter, 
or  sugar,  and  in  the  second,  in  separating  the  spiritu- 
ous from  the  watery  particles  of  the  fermented  liquor. 
Porter,  Ale,  Beer,  and  Wine  are  products  of  the 
former  mode  of  operation ;  whilst  Rum,  Brandy, 
Whiskey,  and  Arrack  are  those  of  the  latter.  The 
existence  of  the  latter,  (which  arc  all  modifications 
of  one  substance,  alcohol,)  in  the  former,  is  the  cause 
of  that  intoxicating,  or  exhilerating  quality  which  is 
so  peculiar  to  fermented  liquors.  The  substances 
commonly  in  use,  for  the  preparation  of  these  liquors^ 
are  Sugar,  Grapes  and  Barley ;  although  there  are 
various  other  substances  used  for  the  same  purpose 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.*     The  species  of  fer- 

*  The  sake  of  the  Chinese  is  prepared  with  rice  ;  (the  saccharine  ingre- 
dient, or  that  which  by  fermentation,  is  productive  of  the  alcohol  ;)  the  chica 
of  the  N6rtli  Americans  with  maize  ;  the  quass  of  the  Russians  with  a  com- 
position  of  barley,  rye,  and  oats  ;  the  koumiss  oithe  Tartars  is  composed  of 
ftrmented  mare's  milk,  and  some  aromatic  substances,   as   angelica  or  the 


10  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

mentation  in  question  is  generally  denominated  vin- 
ous ;  but  there  are  two  other  kinds,  viz. :  the  acetous 
and  the  panary^  which  being  those  which  take  place 
in  the  preparation  of  Vinegar  and  Wheaten  Bread, 
shall  be  considered  in  order. 

BREWING,  OR  THE  PREPARATION  OF  FERBIENTED  LIQUORS. 

Barle}^  which  consists  of  fecula  or  starch,  albu- 
men and  gluten,  is  the  substance  commonly  employ- 
ed for  brewing  ale,  porter,  and  beer.,  in  this  country ; 
but  before  these  several  liquoi*s  can  be  properly 
prepared,  it  is  necessary  that  the  ingredients  should 
undergo  some  previous  operations. 

heracleuin.  The  Swedes  make  a  sort  of  beer  of  various  fruits  and  grains, 
fermented  together,  as  juniper-berries,  plums,  mulberries,  cherries,  goose- 
berries, k.c.  The  art  of  maiiing  beer  appears  to  have  originated  in  Egypt, 
and  to  have  extended  thence  along  the  coast  of  Asia,  to  the  northern  parts 
of  that  quarter  of  the  globe  ;  and  hence  to  the  corresponding  part  of  Europe 
with  the  Scjthians.  Beer  is  not  now  used  in  Egypt,  nor  on  the  greater  part 
of  the  coasts  of  the  iMediterranean,  (although  Mungo  Park  says  the  negroes 
prepare  it,  and  in  a  way  nearly  similar  to  that  generally  adopted  in  Europe,) 
but  it  has  to  the  present  time  continued  a  favorite  drink  with  the  northern 
nations  of  Europe.  This  liquor  very  readily'  produces  intoxication,  and  these 
people  have  preserved  enough  of  the  disposition  of  their  ancestors, — to  whom 
Odin  promised  drunkenness  as  one  of  the  joys  of  his  paradise,— to  like  it  on 
this  account.  Distillation  from  fermented  substances  produces  liquors  com- 
monly called  spirits,  as  a  general  appellative  ;  various  kinds  of  which  are 
prepared  by  different  nations,  thus  Brandy  is  obtained  from  grapes,  Rum 
from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane,  Arrack  from  rice,  Whiskey  from  barley, 
oats,  and  several  species  of  grain  of  the  cereal  kind,  and  this  when  llavoured 
by  juniper-berries,  is  called  Ilollumls,  Geneva,  or  Gin ;  treated  thus 
by  cherries,  it  is  kirschen-ivasser.  Various  compounds,  as  RfitiCe,  Nuyeau, 
Rosolia,  &c.  are  made  by  flavouring  malt  spirit  with  kernels  and  other  aro- 
matics.  Beers  are  also  treated  in  a  similar  way,  by  adding  spruce,  (the 
resinous  juice  of  various  species  o( pines)  and  formerly  they  were  much  in 
use  as  medicines,  amongst  the  lower  classes  of  people  in  England,  when 
various  drugs  and  vegetables,  as  gentian,  senna,  aloes,  rhubarb,  horse-radish, 
scurvy-grass,  wild  carrot  seeds,  &c.  have  been  macerated  in  them.  The 
substances  from  which  wine,  cider,  perry,  and  mead,  are  prepared,  are  too 
TV^ll  known  to  require  being  here  designated. 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER.  1 1 

Malttsg,  or  the  conversion  of  barley  into  malt,  is 
the  first  process  in  the  making  of  beer.  The  grain 
is  put  into  a  trough  with  water,  to  steep  for  about 
three  days  :  it  is  then  laid  in  heaps,  to  let  the  water 
drain  from  it,  and  it  is  afterwards  turned  over  and 
laid  in  new  heaps.  In  this  state,  the  same  process 
takes  place  as  if  the  barley  were  soAvn  in  the  ground. 
It  begins  to  germinate,  puts  forth  a  shoot,  and  the 
fecula  of  the  seed  is  converted  into  saccharine  mat- 
ter. When  the  length  of  the  shoot  is  about  two 
thirds  of  the  length  of  the  grain,  this  process  of  ger- 
mination must  be  stopped,  otherwise  the  sugar  would 
be  lost,  nature  intending  it  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  young  plant.  The  malt  is  therefore  spread  out 
upon  a  floor,  and  frequently  turned  over,  this  cools 
it  and  dries  up  its  moisture,  without  which  the  ger- 
mination cannot  proceed.  When  it  is  completely 
dried,  in  this  manner,  it  is  called  air-dried  malt,  and 
is  very  little  altered  in  colour.  But  when  it  is  dried 
in  kilns,  it  acquires  a  brownish  colour,  which  is  deep- 
er in  proportion  to  the  heat  applied ;  it  is  then  caDed 
kihi  dried.  This  malt  is  now  coarsely  ground  in  a 
mill. 

Mashing  is  the  next  process.  Tliis  is  performed 
in  a  large  circular  w^ooden  vessel,  called  the  mash- 
tun,  shallow  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  and  furnished 
with  a  false  bottom,  pierced  with  small  holes,  and 
fixed  a  few  inches  above  the  real  bottom.  There  are 
two  side  openings,  in  the  interval  between  the  real 
and  false  bottom :  to  one  is  fixed  a  pipe,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  water  into  the  tun ;  the  other  is 
for  drawing  the  liquor  out  of  it.  The  malt  is  to  be 
strewed  over  the  false  bottom  of  the  tun,  and  then. 


12  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

by  means  of  the  side  ])ipe,  a  proper  quantity  of  hot 
water  is  introduced  from  a  copper ;  tiie  water  rises 
upwards  through  tiie  malt,  and  when  the  whole  quan- 
tity is  introduced,  the  mashing  begins ;  the  object  of 
which  is,  that  the  soluble  parts  may  be  extracted  by 
it.  For  this  purpose,  the  grist  is  sometimes  incor- 
porated with  the  water  by  iron  rakes,  and  then  the 
mass  is  beaten  and  agitated  by  long  flat  wooden 
poles,  resembling  oars,  which  are  either  worked  by 
the  hand,  or  by  machinery. 

When  the  mashing  is  completed,  the  tun  is  cover- 
ed, to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  heat,  and  the  whole 
is  suffered  to  remain  still,  in  order  that  the  insoluble 
parts  may  separate  from  the  liquor :  the  side  is  then 
opened,  and  the  clear  wort  allowed  to  run  off,  (slowly 
at  first,  but  more  rapidly  as  it  becomes  fine,)  into 
the  copper  or  boiler  placed  below.  The  chief  thing 
to  be  attended  to  in  mashing,  is  the  temperature, 
which  depends  on  the  heat  of  the  water,  and  the  state 
of  the  malt.  If  the  water  is  let  in  upon  the  grist 
boiling  hot,  the  starch  which  it  contains  will  be  dis- 
solved and  converted  into  a  gelatinous  substance,  in 
which  all  the  other  parts  of  the  malt  and  most  of  the 
water  would  be  entangled  be3ond  the  possibility  of 
being  recovered  by  any  after  process.  The  most 
eligible  temperature  appears  to  be  from  185°  to  190" 
Farenheit ;  for  the  first  mashing,  the  heat  of  the 
water  must  be  somewhat  below  this  temperature,  and 
lower  i7i  proportion  to  the  dark  colour  of  the  malt 
made  use  of.  For  pale  malt,  the  water  may  be  180°, 
but  for  brown  it  ought  not  to  be  more  than  170°.  The 
yvoTt  of  the  first  mashing  is  always  the  richest  in 
saccharine  matter,  but  to  exhaust  the  malt,  a  second 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER.  13 

and  third  mashing  is  required,  in  which  the  water 
may  be  safely  raised  to  190°  or  upwards. 

The  proportion  of  wort  to  be  obtained  from  each 
bushel  of  malt  depends  entirely  on  the  propoi:ed 
strength  of  the  liquor.  It  is  said  that  25  or  30  gal- 
lons of  good  table-beer  may  be  taken  from  each 
bushel  of  malt.  For  ale  and  porter  of  the  superior 
kinds,  only  the  produce  of  the  first  mashing,  or  six 
or  eight  gallons  is  to  be  used.  Brewers  make  use  of 
an  instrument  called  a  saccharometer,  to  ascertain 
the  strength  and  goodness  of  the  wort.  This  instru- 
ment is  a  kind  of  hydrometer ;  and  shews  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  wort,  rather  than  the  exact  quan- 
tity of  saccharine  matter  which  it  contains. 

The  next  process  is  Bousing  and  Hopplxg.  If  only 
one  kind  of  liquor  is  made,  the  produce  of  the  three 
masiiiniis  is  to  be  mixed  together ;  but  if  ale  and 
table-beer  are  required,  the  wort  of  the  first,  or  first 
and  second  mashings  is  appropriated  to  the  ale,  and 
the  remainder  is  set  aside  for  the  beer. 

All  tJie  wort  destined  for  the  same  liquor,  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  tun  to  the  copper,  and  mixed  with  a 
certain  proportion  of  hops.  The  better  the  wort, 
the  more  hops  are  required. 

In  private  families,  a  pound  of  hops  is  generally 
used  to  every  bushel  of  malt :  but  in  public  brewer- 
ies, a  much  smaller  proportion  is  deemed  sufficient. 
When  ale  and  table-beer  are  brewed  from  the  same 
malt,  the  usual  practice  is  to  put  the  whole  quantity 
of  hops  in  the  ale  wort,  which  having  been  boiled 
somp  time,  are  to  be  transferred  to  the  beer-wort,  and 
with,  it  to  he  boiled  again. 


14  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

The  whole  is  now  to  be  kept  boiling  as  fast  as  pos- 
sible, until,  upon  taking  a  little  of  the  liquor  out,  it  is 
found  to  be  Mi  of  small  flakes  like  those  of  curdled 
soap.  The  copper,  in  common  breweries,  is  uncov- 
ered ;  but  in  those  on  a  large  scale  it  is  fitted  with  a 
steam-tight  cover,  from  the  centre  of  v.  hich  passes  a 
pipe,  terminating  by  several  branches  in  the  mash 
tun.  The  steam,  therefore,  produced  by  the  boiling, 
instead  of  being  wasted,  is  let  into  the  cold  water, 
and  thus  raises  it  to  the  temperature  required  for 
mashing ;  besides  impregnating  it  very  sensibly  with 
the  essential  oil  of  the  hops. 

When  the  liquor  is  boiled,  it  is  to  be  discharged 
into  a  number  of  coolers,  or  shallow  tubs,  where  it 
remains  until  it  becomes  sufficiently  cool  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  fermentation.  The  process  of  cooling 
should  be  carried  on  as  expeditiously  as  possible, 
particularly  in  hot  weather.  Liquor  made  from  pale 
malt,  and  Avhich  is  intended  for  immediate  drinking, 
need  not  be  cooled  lower  than  75  or  80  degrees  :  of 
course  this  kind  of  beer  may  be  brewed  in  the  hot- 
test weather;  but  beer  brewed  from  brown  malt, 
and  intended  to  be  kept,  must  be  cooled  to  65  or  70 
degrees  before  it  is  fermented.  Hence  the  Spring 
and  Autumn  have  been  dtemed  the  most  favourable 
seasons  for  brewing  the  best  malt  liquor. 

In  the  Working,  the  liquor  gradually  loses  its 
transparency  :  an  intestine  motion,  accompanied  with 
at  slight  hissing  noise,  takes  place  throughout  the 
whole  contents  of  the  vessel,  and  carbonic  acid  gas 
is  disengaged  in  the  shape  of  small  bubbles,  which, 
when  they  arrive  at  the  surface,  burst.  These  bub- 
bles are  enveloped  in  thin  films  of  glutinous  matter, 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  TORTER.  15 

which,  by  constant  accumulation,  form  the  froth, 
scum,  or  barm,  on  the  surface.  This  froth  is  usually 
called  yeast,  and  will  cause  fermentation  in  any  other 
body  of  malt  or  saccharine  liquor. 

The  .last  operations  are  Tunning  and  Barrelling. 
From  the  cooler  the  liquor  is  to  be  transferred  into 
the  working  tun,  and  mixed  with  yeast,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  a  gallon  of  yeast  to  four  barrels  of  beer,  in 
order  to  excite  the  vinous  fermentation.  In  four  or 
five  hours  the  fermentation  begins  ;  and  it  requires 
from  18  to  48  hours,  before  the  wort  is  fit  to  be  put 
into  the  barrels.  The  fermented  liquor  may  be  fined 
by  pouring  into  it  a  solution  of  isinglass,  yolks  of 
eggs,  or  gum-tragacanth  ;  and  it  is  then  to  be  exclu- 
ded from  the  air,  by  means  of  a  tight  bung. 

PREPARATION  OF  LONDON  PORTER. 

A  late  writer  has  given  to  the  world  considerable 
information  respecting  the  breAving  of  Porter.  His 
intention  being  to  exhibit  the  advantages  derived 
from  domestic  brewing ;  he  has  annexed  the  price 
of  each  article  of  the  composition.  His  list  of  ingre- 
dients in  the  following  proportions,  is  that  used  in 

the  first  London  Breweries, 

I 

7  bushels  Malt j^4  90 

8  lbs.  Hops              0  96 

G  lbs.  Treacle            -.-__.  0  30 

8  lbs.  Liquorice  Root,  br^iised          -         -         -        -  1   75 

8  lbs.  Essentia  Bina 0  70 

8  lbs.  Colouring               0  70 

^  oz.  Capsicum          ------  0  04 

2  oz.  Spanish  Liquorice           -        -         -         -         -  0  08 

1  oz.  Cocculus  Indicus,  commonly  called  Cocculus 

India  Berries       -        .        .        -        ,  0  04 


0 

02 

0 

02 

0 

OG 

0 

02 

0 

02 

0 

04 

9 

65 

0 

62 

$10 

27 

16  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

2  drams  Siilt  of  Tartar  -         -         -         -         . 
i  oz.  lleHclin^             ...... 

3  oz.  Ginger  .---_.. 

4  oz.  Linio,  (when  slacked  :  the  Limevvater  is  to  be 

poured  into  the  Essentia  Bina,  or  colour  in 
the  making'. 3  .... 

1  oz.  Linseed  .---.-_ 

2  drams  Cinnamon  Buik  .         .        _        . 


Fuel  .-.-_-- 

Total  expense  -        -        - 

This  will  produce  90  gallons  of  good  Porter,  and  50  gallons 
of  good  Table  Beer,  the  cost  of  the  Porter,  at  the  large  breweries 
being  ^21  and  that  of  the  Beer  j^o.  leaving  a  profit  of  |^15  73. 

Observations.  The  essentia  bina  is  composed  of 
eight  pounds  of  moist  sugar,  boiled  in  an  iron  vessel, 
(for  no  copper  one  coidd  withstand  the  heat  sulli- 
ciently,)  till  it  becomes  of  a  thick  syrupy  consistence, 
perfectly  black  and  extremely  bitter.*  The  colour* 
ing  is  composed  of  eight  pounds  of  moist  sugar  boil- 
ed (ill  it  attains  a  middle  state,  between  bitter  and 
sweet.  It  gives  that  fine  mellow  colour  usually  so 
much  admired  in  good  porter.  These  ingredients 
are  added  to  tlie  first  wort,  and  boiled  with  it. 

The  heading  is  a  mixture  of  half  alum  and  ha]f 
copperas,  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  It  is  so  called 
from  its  giving  to  porter  that  beautiful  head  or  froth, 
wliich  constitutes  one  of  the  peculiar  properties  of 
porter,  and  which  publicans  are  so  anxious  to  raise 
to  gratify  their  customers. 

♦  Wlien  making  the  essentia  and  colour,  ob.serve  when  it  is  boiled  sufTi- 
cienllj,  to  make  it  liquid  enough  to  pour  olTinto  the  liquor,  add  a  little  clear 
M'ater,  or  lime  water,  to  hrinj;  it  to  a  proper  temper  :  otliPr\vi.=e  it  will  be» 
come  a  hard,  dry,  burnt  substance. 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER.  1"^ 

^he  linseed,  ginger,  lime-water,  cinnamon,  and 
several  other  small  articles,  may  be  added  or  ^vith- 
held,  according  to  the  taste,  custom,  or  practice  of 
the  brewer,  being  merely  optional,  and  used  solely 
to  give  a  flavour  to  the  beer ;  hence  it  is  that  so  ma- 
ny flavours  are  distinguishable  in  porter,  and  that  so 
very  few  brewers  are  found  to  agree  with  each  other 
in  their  produce. 

Of  the  articles  here  enumurated  it  is  sufficient  to 
observe,  that  however  much  they  may  surprise,  how- 
ever pernicious  or  disagreeable  ihey  may  appear, 
they  have  always  been  found  requisites  in  the  brew- 
ing of  porter.  They  must  invariably  be  used  by 
those  who  wish  to  continue  the  taste,  flavour,  and 
appearance  which  they  have  been  accustomed  to. 

Quantity  of  Ingredientt  necessary  for  Bre-s:ing  5  Gallons  oj"  Porter. 
1  peck  Malt       .  .  .  -  _ 

i  lb.  of  Liquorice  Root,  bruised 
Spanish  Liquorice  .  .  _  . 

Essentia         -  -  .  -  - 

Colour  .  -  .  _  _ 

Treacle        .  -  _  .  _ 

Hops         .-.-._ 
Capsicum  and  Ginger  -  -  - 

Fuel  .  -  -  » 

Total  expense 

This  will  produce  five  gallons  of  good  Porter,  which  bought, 
would  cost  j^l  17  ;  but  being  brewed  at  home  for  58  cents,  leaves 
a  clear  gain  of  59  cents. 

This  saving  is  enough  to  pay  for  time  and  trouble, 
and  perhaps  a  woman  might  not  be  able  to  earn  in 


^0 
0 

18 
08 

0 

01 

0 

04 

0 

04 

0 

03 

0 

04 

0 

02 

^0 
0 

44 
14 

$0 

58 

18  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

the  same  time  one  cent :  by  following  tliis  plan  then 
every  woman  will  be  able  to  earn  something,  for,  ac- 
cording to  the  proverb,  money  saved  is  money  got. 

The  porter  will  be  drinkable  in  a  week,  being  per- 
fectly wholesome  and  palatable. 

Observations,  If  it  is  objected,  that  many  are  ig* 
norant  of  the  art  of  brewing ;  some  instructions  are 
necessary ;  and  if  they  are  followed,  every  person 
will  be  convinced  of  the  possibility  and  propriety  of 
providing  a  beverage  for  his  family,  by  a  cheaper 
and  more  pleasing  method  than  that  of  resorting  to 
a  public  house  for  every  pint  of  beer  which  the  wants 
of  nature  may  demand. 

Every  person  intending  to  brew  for  himself,  must 
be  careful  to  see  the  malt  measured  and  ground,  and 
not  trust  to  the  corn  chandlers,  who  frequently  im- 
pose, both  in  quality  and  quantity,  on  those  who  are 
so  incautious  as  not  to  see  these  things  done  in  their 
own  presence. 

The  tubs  and  vessels  must  be  carefully  inspected, 
and  proved  to  be  free  from  dirt  or  the  least  taint,  as 
defects  of  that  natm-e  may  distaste  a  whole  brewing. 

The  mash-tub  should  be  particularly  attended  to, 
and  a  wisp  of  clean  hay  or  straw  is  to  be  put  over 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  the  inside,  to  prevent  the 
malt  running  off  with  the  liquor. 

The  malt  being  emptied  into  the  mash-tub,  and 
the  water  brought  to  boil,  dash  the  boiling  w^ater  in 
the  copper  with  cold  water  sutlicient  to  stop  the  boil- 
ing, and  leave  it  just  hot  enough  slightly  to  scald  the 
finger.  Brewers  use  a  thermometer,  the  first  mash 
being  usually  taken  at  180°,  and  the  second  at  190°  ; 
but  as  few  persons  have  a  brewing  thermometer,  the 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER.  19 

foregoing  nile  will  be  found  sufficient  by  a  little  prac- 
tice ;  always  remeniberino;  to  draw  off  the  second 
mash  somewhat  hotter  than  the  first.  The  water  be- 
ing thus  brought  to  a  proper  temperature  by  the  ad- 
dition of  cold  water,  lade  it  out  of  the  copper  over 
the  malt  till  it  becomes  thoroughly  wet,  mashing  it 
well  to  prevent  the  malt  from  clotting ;  when  the 
water  is  poured  on  too  hot,  it  sets  the  malt,  closing 
the  body  of  it :  and  when  that  happens  it  is  difficult 
to  recorer  it.  It  can  only  be  done  by  adding  cold 
water.  By  setting  the  malt  is  to  be  understood,  its 
closing  the  body  of  the  grain,  instead  of  opening  it 
so  as  to  dissolve  in  the  liquor,  cover  up  the  mash-tub 
close  so  as  to  compress  the  steam,  and  p^e^  ent  the 
liquid  from  evaporating.  In  small  quantities,  this 
should  carefully  be  regarded  ;  in  larger  ones  it  does 
not  signify  so  much. 

Let  the  wort  stand  an  hour  and  a  half,  or  two 
hours  after  mashing,  then  let  the  liquor  run  off  into  a 
vessel  prepared  to  receive  it ;  if  at  first  it  runs  thick 
and  discoloured,  draw  off  one  or  two  pails  full,  and 
pour  it  back  again  into  the  mash-tub  till  it  rims  clear. 

In  summer  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  a  few  hops 
into  the  vessel  which  receives  the  liquor  out  of  the 
mash-tub,  to  prevent  its  turning  sour,  which  the  heat 
of  the  weatlier  will  sometimes  endanger.  Let  the 
second  mash  run  as  before,  and  let  the  liquor  stand  an 
hour  and  a  half,  then  run  it  off,  but  never  let  the  malt 
stand  dry ;  keep  lading  fresh  liquor  over  it  till  the 
quantity  of  wort  to  be  obtained  is  extracted,  always 
allowing  for  waste  in  the  boiling. 

The  next  consideration  is  boiling  the  tcort.  The 
first  copper  full  must  be  boiled  an  hour,  and  whilst 


^  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

boiling,  add  the  several  ingredients,  except  the  ginger 
and  cocculus  berries.  The  hops  are  now  to  be  boiled 
in  the  wort,  but  are  to  be  carefully  strained  from  the 
first  wort  in  order  to  being  boiled  again  in  the  second. 
Eight  pounds  is  the  common  proportion  to  seven 
bushels  of  malt ;  but  in  summer,  the  weather  being 
hotter,  the  quantity  must  be  varied  from  eight  pounds 
to  twelve  pounds,  according  to  the  heat  of  the  air. 

After  the  wort  has  boiled  an  hour,  lade  it  out  of  the 
copper  and  cool  it.  In  summer,  it  should  be  quite 
cold  before  it  is  set  to  work  :  in  winter  it  should  be 
kept  till  a  slight  degree  of  warmth  is  perceptible  by 
the  finger.  When  properly  cooled  set  it  to  work,  by 
adding  yeast  in  proportion  to  the  quantity.  If  con- 
siderable, and  if  wanted  to  work  quick,  add  from 
one  gallon  to  two.  Porter  should  be  brought  for- 
ward quicker  than  any  other  liquor  except  small  beer, 
let  it  work  till  it  comes  to  a  good  deep  head,  then 
cleanse  it  by  adding  the  ginger.  The  liquor  is  now 
fit  for  barrelling.  Fill  the  barrels  full,  and  let  the 
yeast  work  out,  adding  fresh  liquor  to  fill  them,  till 
they  are  quite  full  and  have  done  working.  Now 
bung  the  barrels,  but  keep  a  watchful  eye  upon  them 
for  some  time,  lest  the  beer  should  suddenly  ferment 
again,  and  burst  them,  which  is  no  uncommon  ac-. 
cident  where  due  care  is  not  taken  ;  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer, or  a  sudden  change  of  weather,  Avill  occasion  the 
same  misfortune,  if  the  barrels  are  not  watched,  and 
eased  when  they  require  it,  by  drawing  the  peg. 

The  only  part  which  remains  to  complete  the  brew- 
ing isjining  the  beer.  To  understand  this,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  remark,  that  porter  is  composed  by  brewers 
of  three  different  sorts  of  malt ;  pale,  brown,  and  am- 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER.  21 

ber  ; — the  reason  for  using  these  three  sorts,  is  to 
obtain  a  peculiar  flavour  and  colour.  Amber  is  the 
most  wholesome,  and  it  is  recommended  to  use  none 
else.  In  consequence  of  the  subtleness  of  the  essen- 
tia, which  keeps  constantly  swimming  in  the  beer, 
porter  requires  a  considerable  body  of  finings ;  but 
should  any  person  choose  to  brew  without  essentia, 
with  amber  malt  and  with  colour  onl}',  the  porter  will 
refine  of  itself  very  soon.  Some,  however,  will  perhaps 
follow  the  exact  recipe,  and  therefore  it  is  necessary 
to  mention  that  finings  are  composed  of  isinglass  dis- 
solved in  stale  beer,  till  the  whole  becomes  of  a  thin 
gluey  consistence,  like  size  :  one  pint  is  the  usual 
proportion  to  a  barrel,  but  sometimes  two,  and  even 
three  are  found  necessarj^  Particular  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  beer  in  which  the  isinglass  is  dissolved, 
be  perfectly  clear  and  thoroughly  stale.  By  attend- 
ing to  these  directions,  any  person  may  brew  as  good, 
if  not  better  porter  than  the}'  can  be  supplied  with 
from  the  public  houses.  Many  notions  have  been 
artfully  raised,  that  porter  requires  to  be  brewed  in 
large  quantities,  and  to  be  long  stored,  to  render  it 
sound  and  strong,  but  experience  will  prove  the  false- 
hood of  these  prejudices  which  have  their  origin  with 
the  ignorant,  and  are  cherished  by  the  interested. 
One  brewing  under  another  will  afford  ample  time 
for  porter  to  refine  for  use,  and  every  person  can  best 
judge  of  the  extent  of  his  consumption.  Porter  is 
not  the  better  for  being  brewed  in  large  quanti- 
ties, except  that  the  same  trouble  which  brews  a 
peck,  will  brew  a  bushel.  This  mode  of  practice  will 
be  found  simple  and  easy  in  its  operation,  essentially 


82  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

useful  as  to  health  and  convenience,  and  extremelj 
moderate  in  point  of  trouble  and  expense. 

PREPARATION  OP  ALE. 

The  following  is  the  proportion  of  ingredients  re- 
quisite for  brewing  a  barrel  of  excellent  ale. 

The  same  method  is  to  be  pursued  in  almost  eve- 
ry respect,  as  for  the  brewing  of  porter.  The  prices 
are  annexed,  in  order  to  shew  the  absolute  saving 
which  may  be  made  in  this  beverage.  Prices  fluctu- 
ate, but  then  the  article  compounded  rises  or  falls  in 
price  accordingly ;  so  that  the  ratio  of  saving  is  al- 
ways the  same. 

2i  bushefsMalt  -^       -         -         -        -         -         ^1  75 

2  lbs.  Hops  j^^     -  * 0  24 

3  lbs.  Sugar,  just  boiled  up,  allowing  for  fire  and 

trouble  in  preparing    -         -        -        -  0  30. 

Capsicum  4,  Coriander  4         -         -         -         -         -0  08 
Cocculus  Indicus  2,  Salt  4-         -        -         -        -  0  06 

$2  43 

The  Small  Beer,  after  the  Ale  is  brewed,  is  supposed  an 
equivalent  for  Fuel.  A  barrel  of  Ale,  128  quarts,  at  8  cents  per 
quart,  bought  at  an  Inn,  ^10  24,  brewed  at  home,  ^2  43,  clear 
gain  $7   81. 

Observations.  Ale  is  generally  brewed  from  pale 
malt,  but  that  is  merely  an  optional  point ;  some  per- 
sons preferring  brown,  some  amber  ales. 

The  capsicum  and  coriander  seeds  are  to  be  boil- 
ed in  the  wort ;  observe  the  same  method  of  boiling 
and  mashing  as  in  porter;  but  let  ale  stand  to  work 
two  or  three  days,  and  beat  it  up  well  once  or  twice 
a  day.     When  the  head  begins  to  fall,  cleanse  it  by 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER.  23 

adding  a  handful  of  salt,  and  a  little  flour ;  mixed  up 
with  the  cocculus  indicus ;  then  proceed  to  barrel  it 

PREPARATIOX  OF  THE  MALT  BEVERAGE,  DENOMINATED 
SMALL  BEER. 

Small  Beer  is  an  article  not  formed  to  keep,  and  is 
not  likely  to  be  brewed  by  any  persons  for  their  own 
consumption.  The  following  propoitions  for  one 
barrel,  are  inserted,  merely  to  add  to  general  infor- 
mation in  the  art  of  brewing. 

11  bushels  Malt            -        -        -        -        -         -  ^1  05 

1  lb.  Hops  -  -  -  -._  -  _  0  12 
1§  lbs.  Liquorice  Root  -  -  -  -  -  0  33 
i  oz.  Capsicum           .-.-_.  0  02 

2  oz.  Spanish  Liquorice            -         -         -         -         -  0  05 

6  lbs.  Treacle  -.._..  025 

•  

$1   82 


One  barrel  Small  Beer,  paid  for  at  an  Inn,  128  quarts  at  4 
cents  per  quart,  $5  12.  Brewed  at  home,  Fuel  included,  g2. — 
Clear  gain,  g3  12. 

Observations.  It  is  sufficient  to  observe  respect- 
ing this  liquor,  that  it  requires  no  storing,  being  fre- 
quently brewed  one  week,  and  consumed  the  next. 

The  quantity  of  capsicum  in  one  barrel  of  small 
beer  is  as  much  as  is  commonly  contained  in  two 
barrels  of  porter,  this  readily  accounts  for  the  pre- 
ference given  to  it,  by  the  working  classes,  in  cold 
winter  mornino-s. 

Small  beer  works  remarkably  quick,  and  must  be 
carefully  attended  to.  in  the  barrels. 


$^ 

90 

0 

96 

0 

70 

0 

io 

0 

60 

$1 

26 

24  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTEU. 

PREPARATION  OF  TEN  BARRELS  OF  TABLE  BEUR. 

Table  Beer  may  be  serviceable  to  a  large  family^ 
and  therefore,  the  estimate  is  given  upon  a  larger 
proportion. 

7  bushels  Malt  .-..*. 

8  lbs.  Hops  _         ,         .  _         . 
8  lbs.  Colour         -         .         i        .         .        . 
8  oz.  Spanish  Liqaorice               -         -         _         . 

10  lbs.  Treacle       -----* 


Ten   barrels   at  ^3  per  barrel,   bou<^ht,  ^30.     Ten  barrels 
brewed  at  home,  jg7  26. — Clear  gain,  $22  74. 

Liquorice  root,  and  other  flavouring  substances, 
may  be  added  :  what  are  here  inserted  are  only  the 
most  general,  and,  (as  some  suppose)  the  indispensi- 
ble  requisites. 

General  observations. — The  intoxicating  qualities 
of  porter  are  to  be  ascribed  chielly  to  the  various 
drugs  intermixed  with  it.  It  is  evident,  some  porter 
is  more  heady  than  others;  this  arises  from  the  greater 
or  less  quantity  of  stupifying  ingredients.  Malt,  to 
produce  intoxication,  must  be  used  in  such  large 
quantities  as  would  very  much  diminish  the  brewers 
profit. 

Pale  malt  is  most  nutritive,  it  likewise  contains 
more  balsamic  qualities  than  tlie  brown  malt,  which 
enduring  a  greater  degree  of  fire  in  the  kiln  is  some- 
times so  crusted  and  burnt,  that  its  mealy  parts  lose 
a  great  share  of  the  essential  salts,  and  other  stimu- 
lating properties. 

Amber  malt  is  that  which  is  dried  in  a  middling 
degree,  between  pale  and  brown,  and  is  now  much 


BEER,  ALE,  AXD  PORTER.  25 

in  use,  being  the  most  pleasant,  and  free  from  either 
extreme. 

Hops  are  an  aromatic  grateful  bitter,  ver}"  whole- 
some, and,  undoubtedly  efficacious  in  givmg  both 
flavour  and  strength  to  the  beer.  With  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  liops,  as  tastes  are  different,  no  regular 
fixed  rule  can  be  given,  but  every  person  must  be  left 
to  adjust,  by  experience,  the  quantity  which  best 
suits  iiis  palate  or  convenience. 

Yeast  is  necessary  to  give  the  liquor  that  portion 
of  elastic  air,  of  which  the  boiling  deprives  it.  With- 
out fermentation,  or  working,  no  worts  however  rich 
can  inebriate. 

Liquorice  root  is  pleasant,  wholesome,  and  aperient, 
and  opposes  the  astringent  qualities  of  some  of  the 
other  ingredients,  it  ought  therefore  to  be  used,  as 
should  Spanish  liquorice,  which  possesses  the  same 
properties. 

Capsicum  disperses  ^vind,  and  when  properly  used 
cannot  be  unwholesome ;  it  leaves  a  warm  glow  on 
the  stomach,  which  is  perceptible  on  drinking  some 
beers. 

Ginger  has  the  same  effect  as  capsicum ;  it  fur 
thermore,  cleanses  and  flavours  beer.  But  capsicum 
being  cheaper,  is  more  used ;  and  by  its  tasteless, 
though  extremely  hot  quality,  cannot  be  so  readily 
discerned  in  beer  as  ginger. 

Treacle  partakes  of  many  of  the  properties  of 
liquorice.  By  promoting  the  natural  secretions,  it 
must  be  a  principal  means  of  rendering  porter  and 
beer,  in  general  wholesome.  Treacle  is  also  a  cheap- 
er article  than  sugar,  and  answers  the  purposes  of 
colour,  where  the  beer  is  intended  for  immediate  con- 

4 


26  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

sumption ;  but,  in  summer,  where  a  body  is  required 
to  withstand  the  temperature  of  the  air ;  and  the 
draught  is  not  quick,  sugar  alone  can  give  body  to 
porter.     Treacle,  therefore,  is  a  discretionary  article. 

Coriander  seed,  used  principally  in  ale,  is  warm 
and  stomachic ;  but  when  used  in  great  quantity,  it 
is  pernicious. 

Cocculus  Indicus  is  poisonous  and  stupifying  when 
taken  in  any  considerable  quantity.  When  ground 
into  fine  powder  it  is  undiscoverable  in  the  liquor, 
and  it  is  but  too  much  used  to  the  prejudice  of  the 
public. 

Heading  :  Salt  of  steel  is  most  proper,  but  a  mix- 
ture of  alum  and  copperas,  being  much  cheaper,  has 
obtained  the  preference.  Alum  is  a  great  drier,  and 
causes  that  thirst  which  some  beer  occasions  ;  so  that 
the  more  you  drink,  the  more  you  want.  Alum  gives 
likewise  a  smack  of  age  to  the  beer  and  is  penetrat- 
ing to  the  palate.  The  properties  of  copperas  are 
well  known  to  be  dangerous,  and  therefore  need  no 
comment.  Salt  is  highly  useful  in  all  beers;  it  gives 
a  pleasing  relish,  and  also  fines  the  liquor. 

Different  conveniences  of  cellaring  will  materially 
affect  beer. — If  the  cellar  is  bad,  brew  only  for  pre- 
sent use.  In  this  case,  six  weeks  will  be  found  a 
very  proper  space  betwixt  brewing  and  brewing. 
Where  beer  is  kept  too  long  in  a  bad  cellar,  so  as  to 
be  affected  by  the  heat  of  the  weather,  it  will  putref}^ 
though  ever  so  well  bunged.  Hops  will  not  prevent 
this  accident  happening  to  beer ;  they  only  prevent 
its  turning  sour. 

A  number  of  persons  not  reflecting  upon  the  influ- 
ence of  the  air, — as  soon  as  summer  approaches,  be- 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER.  27 

gin  to  think  directly  of  breAving  ale,  which  seldom, 
or  never  is  so  good  as  that  brewed  in  a  proper  season. 
For  instance,  the  extreme  variations  of  heat  in  this 
country  are  from  16  to  88  degrees.     Now.  on  brew- 
ing at  16°,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  it  does  not 
get  too  cold ;  whereas,  on  brewing  at  88°,  the  oper- 
ator will  hardly  be  able  to  get  it  cold  enough,  and 
must  take  the  dead  of  the  night  to  reduce  it  down  to 
a  medium  heat,  wliich  should  be  about  60°.     This 
observation  is  too  striking  not  to  enforce  upon  every 
one's  mind  the  necessity  of  carefulness  and  attention 
in  this  respect.     The  effect  on  wort  when  working  is 
exactly  tiie  same.     In  cool  weather  the  spirit  of  the 
beer  is  retained,  and  it  is  thereby  enabled  to  work 
the  liquor  clear;  whereas  in  hot  weather,  the  spirit 
quickly  evaporates,  leaving  the  wort  vapid  and  flat, 
unable  to  work  itself  clear,  but  keeping  continually 
on  the  fret,  till  totally  spoiled.     This  is  the  obvious 
reason  for  the  use  of  sugar,  prepared  for  colour,  be- 
cause sugar  will  bear  the  heat  better  than  malt ;  and 
when  thoroughly  prepared,  possesses  such  a  strong 
principle  of  heat  in  itself,  as  to  bid  defiance  to  the 
hottest  temperature  of  the  air,  and  to  render  its  turn- 
ing sour  impossible. 

As  instances  of  the  effects  of  both :  two  casks  of 
the  saD:e  brewing  have  been  sent  into  one  house,  the 
one  prepared  with  colour,  and  the  other  without ;  on 
tasting  both,  the  cask  prepared  ^vith  colour^was  very 
much  commended,  and  the  other  returned  as  not 
drinkable. 

Clean  casks  are  an  essential  object  in  brewing 
good  beer.  To  keep  the  casks  sweet  and  in  order, 
never  allow  them  to  remain  open,  but  whenever  the 


28  BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER. 

beer  is  drawn  off,  bung  them  up  tight  with  the  lees 
within  them.  In  a  good  cellar  they  will  never  spoil. 
Should  the  casks  get  musty,  the  following  method 
will  remedy  the  evil.  Soak  them  well  lor  two  or 
three  days  in  cold  water,  then  fill  them  full  of  boil- 
ing hot  water ;  now  put  in  a  lump  or  two  of  lime, 
shake  it  thoroughly  till  quite  dissolved,  let  them  stand 
about  half  an  hour,  then  wash  them  out  with  cold 
water,  and  they  will  be  clean  and  sweet. 

TO  PREVENT  BEER  FROIVI  GROWING  FLAT. 

Put  into  a  cask,  containing  eighteen  gallons,  a  pint 
of  ground  malt,  suspended  in  a  bag,  and  close  the 
bung  perfectly;  the  beer  will  be  improved  during 
the  whole  time  of  drawing  it  for  use. 

TO  RECOVER  BEER,  WHEN  SOUR. 

When  beer  is  become  sour,  add  some  03'ster-shells 
calcmed  to  whiteness,  or  a  little  powdered  chalk. — 
Either  of  these  will  correct  the  acidity,  and  will  make 
it  brisk  and  s})arkling.  It  should  be  drank  almost 
immediately  afterwards.     Some  use  salt  of  tartar. 

TO  BOTTLE  PORTER. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  many  persons,  that  on 
bottling  porter  there  is  some  preparation  made  use 
of,  not  generally  understood :  readers  may  rest  assur- 
ed that  nothing  more  is  necessary  to  produce  good 
bottled  porter,  than  attention  to  the  following  rules  : 

Let  the  bottles  be  clean  washed  and  drained  dry — 
the  corks  sound  and  good,  for  this  is  essential. 

Fill  the  bottles  on  one  day,  and  let  them  stand 
open  till  the  next ;  this  will  bring  the  beer  to  a  pro- 


BEER,  ALE,  AND  PORTER.  29 

per  flatness,  and  prevent  the  corks  from  flying,  or 
the  bottles  from  bursting.  Let  the  bottles  be  corked 
as  close  as  possible. 

These  rules  will  apply  equally  well  to  the  bottling 
of  ales. 

Although  it  is  not  necessarj',  or  perhaps  proper,  to 
make  use  of  all  the  ingredients  here  mentioned,  still 
b}'  attention  to  the  foregoing  obsenations, all  persons 
may  suit  themselves  in  taste,  in  strength,  in  flavour, 
and  in  quautitj-.  They  will  have  beer  much  cheap- 
er :  they  will  have  it  more  wholesome.  Every  per- 
son may  judge  of  his  own  taste  in  beer.  Grains  of 
paradise,  which  have  a  warm  and  pleasant  quality ; 
cardamon  seeds  and  cinnamon,  linseed,  alspice,  and  a 
variety  of  other  flavouring  substances,  may  be  chosen 
by  different  persons. 

CHEAP  AND  \VH0LES05IE  TABLE  BEER. 

To  four  pounds  of  coarse  brown  sugar,  add  ten 
gallons  of  water,  then  put  in  three  ounces  of  hops, 
and  let  the  whole  boil  for  three  quarters  of  an  hour, 
and  work  it  as  usual.  It  should  be  kept  a  week  or 
ten  days  before  it  is  tapped;  when  it  will  improve  daily 
afterwards,  within  a  moderate  time  of  consumption. 

Another  method.,  and  for  a  smaller  quantity,  is,  to 
put  a  pound  of  treacle  to  eight  quarts  of  boiling 
water,  add  two  bay-leaves  and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 
of  ginger  in  powder.  Boil  the  whole  for  fifteen  min- 
utes, then  let  it  become  cool,  and  work  it  vn.i\\  j^east 

GINGER  BEER. 

To  every  gallon  of  spring  water,  add  one  ounce  of 
sliced  white  ginger,  one  poimd  of  common  loaf  sugar. 


30  WINES. 

and  two  ounces  of  lemon  juice;  boil  this  mixture 
nearly  an  hour,  and  take  off  the  scum;  then  run  it 
through  a  hair  sieve  into  a  tub,  and  when  cool,  (viz. 
at  70°)  add  yeast  in  proportion  cf  half  a  pint  to  nine 
gallons ;  keep  it  in  a  temperate  situation  two  days, 
during  which  it  may  be  stirred  six  or  eight  times ; 
then  put  it  into  a  cask,  which  must  be  kept  full,  and 
the  yeast  taken  off  at  the  bung  hole  with  a  spoon. 
In  a  fortnight,  add  half  a  pint  of  fining  (isinglass 
picked  and  steeped  in  beer,)  to  nine  gallons,  which 
will  if  it  has  been  properly  fermented,  clear  it  by 
ascent.  The  cask  must  be  kept  full,  and  the  rising 
particles  taken  off  at  the  bung-hole.  When  fine, 
(which  may  be  expected  in  twenty  four  hours,)  bot- 
tle it,  cork  it  well,  and  in  summer  it  will  be  ripe  and 
fit  to  drink  in  a  fortnight. 


WINES. 

Having  described  the  processes  for  preparing  sev- 
eral malt  liquors  as  above,  it  will  now  be  proper  to 
notice  the  methods  used  for  converting  the  juices  of 
fruits,  &c.  into  those  beverages  which  are  technically 
known  under  the  appellation  of  Wines.  These,  like 
malt  liquors,  are  fermented  by  the  addition  of  yeast. 

CURRANT  WINE. 

Boil  four  gallons  of  spring  water,  and  stir  into  it 
eight  pounds  of  honey ;  when  thoroughl}^  dissolved, 
take  it  off  the  fire ;  then  stir  it  well  about,  to  raise 
the  scum,  which  take  clean  off,  and  cool  the  liquor. 


WINES.  31 

When  thus  prepared,  press  out  the  same  quantity 
of  the  juice  of  red  currants  moderately  ripe,  which 
being  well  strained,  mix  well  with  the  water  and  ho- 
ney ;  then  put  them  into  a  cask  or  large  earthen  ves- 
sel, and  let  them  stand  upon  the  ferment,  for  twenty 
four  hours  ;  then  to  every  gallon  add  two  pounds  of 
fine  sugar,  stir  them  well  to  raise  the  scum,  and  when 
well  settled,  take  it  off,  and  add  half  an  ounce  of 
cream  of  tartar  with  the  whites  of  two  or  three  eggs 
to  refine  it.  When  the  wine  is  well  settled  and  clear, 
draw  it  off  into  a  small  vessel,  or  bottle  it  up,  keep- 
ing it  in  a  cool  place. 

Of  white  currants,  a  wine  after  the  same  manner 
may  be  made,  that  will  equal  in  strength  and  pleas- 
antness many  sorts  of  white  wine ;  but  as  for  the 
black,  or  Dutch  currants,  they  are  seldom  used,  ex- 
cept for  the  preparation  of  medicinal  wines. 

Another  Meihod. — After  gathering  the  currants, 
when  the  weather  is  dry,  strip  them  carefully  from 
the  stalks,  put  them  into  a  pan,  and  bruise  them  with 
a  wooden  pestle.  Let  the  mass  stand  about  twenty 
hours,  after  which  strain  it  through  a  sieve.  Add 
three  pounds  of  fine  sugar  to  every  four  quarts  of  the 
liquor,  and  shaking  or  stirring  it  well,  fill  the  vessel, 
and  put  about  a  quart  of  brandy  to  every  six  or  seven 
gallons.  As  soon  as  it  is  fine,  which  will  be  in  four 
or  five  weeks — bottle  it  off.  If  it  should  not  prove 
quite  clear,  draw  it  off  into  another  vessel,  and  let  it 
stand  about  ten  days,  and  then  bottle  it  off. 

GOOSEBERRY  WINE. 

When  the  weather  is  dry,  gather  gooseberries  about 
the  time  they  are  half  ripe ;  pick  them  clean,  put  the 


32  WINES. 

quantity  of  a  peck  in  a  convenient  vessel,  and  bruise 
them  vi^ith  a  piece  of  wood,  taking  as  much  care  as 
possible  to  keep  the  seeds  wliole.  Now  having  put 
the  pulp  into  a  canvas  bag,  press  out  all  the  juice ; 
and  to  every  gallon  of  the  gooseberries  add  about 
three  pounds  of  fine  loaf  sugar ;  mix  the  whole  to- 
gether by  stirring  it  with  a  stick,  and  as  soon  as  the 
sugar  is  quite  dissolved,  pour  it  into  a  convenient 
cask  which  will  hold  it  exactly.  If  the  quantity  be 
about  eight  or  nine  gallons,  let  it  stand  a  fortnight ; 
if  twenty  gallons,  forty  days,  and  so  on  in  proportion ; 
taking  care  the  place  you  sit  it  in  be  cool.  After 
standing  the  proper  time  draw  it  off  from  the  lees  and 
put  it  into  another  clean  vessel  of  equal  size,  or  into 
the  same,  after  pouring  the  lees  out,  and  making  it 
clean ;  let  a  cask  of  ten  or  twelve  gallons  stand  for 
about  three  months,  and  twenty  gallons  for  five 
months,  after  which  it  will  be  fit  for  bottling  off. 

BUITISH  CHAMPAIGNE. 

Take  gooseberries  before  they  are  ripe,  crush  them 
with  a  mallet  in  a  wooden  bowl,  and  to  every  gallon 
of  fruit  put  a  gallon  of  water ;  let  it  stand  two  days, 
stirring  it  well ;  squeeze  the  mixture  well  with  the 
hands  through  a  hop  sieve  ;  then  measure  the  liquor, 
and  to  every  gallon  put  three  poimds  and  a  half  of 
loaf  sugar ;  mix  it  well  in  the  tub,  and  let  it  stand 
one  day ;  put  a  bottle  of  the  best  brandy  into  the 
cask  ;  which  leave  open  fiver  or  six  weeks,  taking  off 
the  scum  as  it  rises  ;  then  make  it  up,  and  let  it  stand 
one  year  in  the  barrel  before  it  is  bottled. 

Observation.  The  proportion  of  brandy  to  be 
used  for  this  liquor,  is  one  pint  to  seven  gallons. 


■sviNES.  33 

ELDER    WIXE. 

When  the  elderbernes  are  ripe,  pick  them,  and 
put  them  into  a  stone  jar,  which  set  in  boiling 
water,  or  rather  in  an  oven,  till  the  jar  is  as  warm  as 
the  hand  can  well  bear  to  touch  it.  Now  strain  the 
berries  through  a  sieve  or  coarse  cloth,  squeezing 
them  hard,  and  pour  the  liquor  into  a  kettle.  Put  it 
on  the  fire,  let  it  boil,  and  put  in  as  many  pounds  of 
Lisbon  sugar  as  there  are  quarts  of  juice  ;  and  skim 
it  often ;  then  let  it  settle,  pour  it  off  into  a  vessel  and 
cover  it  close.  This  juice  should  be  poured  into  a 
v/ell  seasoned  cask,  and  mixed  with  honey-water, 
(that  is,  honey  boiled  with  water.)  in  the  proportion 
of  three  gallons  of  the  latter  to  a  barrel  of  the  for- 
mer. Now  ferment  the  compound  with  yeast; 
and  afterwards  clarify  it  by  flour,  whites  of  eggs,  and 
a  small  portion  of  saltpetre.  Now  draw  it  from  the 
settlings,  and  keep  it  till  spring ;  then  to  every  barrel 
add  five  pounds  of  its  own  flowers,  and  as  much  loaf 
sugar,  and  let  it  stand  seven  days ;  at  the  end  of  which 
time  it  ^vill  be  very  rich  and  have  a  good  flavour. 

Pilauy  people  mix  it  with  their  raisin  Avine,  by 
putting  half  a  pint  of  the  elder  syrup  to  every  gallon 
of  wine  ;  it  gives  the  raisin  wine  an  exquisitely  fine 
flavour. 

ELDER  FLOWER  WINE. 

To  six  gallons  of  spring  water  put  six  pounds  of 
sun  raisins  cut  small,  and  a  dozen  pounds  of  fine 
sugar ;  boil  the  whole  together  for  about  an  hour  and 
a  half;  When  the  liquor  is  cold  put  half  a  peck  of 
ripe  elder  flowers  in,  with  about  a  gill  of  lemon  juice 
and  half  the  quantity  of  ale  yeast,  cover  it  up  ;  and 


54  WINES. 

after  standing  three  days,  strain  it  off.  Now  pour  it 
into  a  cask  that  is  quite  clean,  and  that  will  hold  it 
with  ease.  When  this  is  done,  put  a  quart  of  Rhen- 
ish to  every  gallon  of  wine,  let  the  bung  be  lightly 
put  in  for  twelve  or  fourteen  days  ;  then  stop  it  down 
fast,  and  put  it  in  a  cool  dry  place  for  four  or  five 
months,  till  it  is  quite  settled  and  fine,  then  bottle  it 
off. 

MORE^LA    WINE. 

Cleanse  from  the  stalks,  sixty  pounds  of  morella- 
cherries,  and  bruise  them  so  that  the  stones  shall  be 
broken.  Now  press  out  the  juice  and  mix  it  with 
six  gallons  of  sherry  wine,  and  four  gallons  of  warm 
water.  Having  grossly  powdered  separate  ounces 
of  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  and  mace,  hang  them  separate- 
ly in  small  bags,  in  the  cask  containing  the  mixture. 
Bung  it  down  :  in  a  few  weeks  it  will  become  a  de- 
liciously  flavoured  wine. 

CHERRY  WINE. 

Take  cherries,  nearly  ripe,  of  any  red  sort,  clear 
them  of  the  stalks  and  stones,  then  put  them  into  a 
glazed  earthen  vessel,  and  squeeze  them  to  a  pulp. 
Let  them  remain  in  this  state  for  twelve  hours  to 
ferment ;  then  put  them  into  a  linen  cloth,  not  too 
fine,  and  press  out  the  juice  with  a  pressing  board, 
or  any  other  convenient  instrument  Now  let  the 
liquor  stand  till  the  scum  rises,  and  with  a  ladle  or 
skimmer  take  it  off  clean  ;  then  pour  the  clearer  part, 
by  inclination,  into  a  cask,  where  to  each  gallon  put 
a  pound  of  the  best  loaf  sugar,  and  let  it  ferment  for 
Sftven  or  eight  days.     Draw  it  off,  when  clear,  into 


WINES.  Sd. 

lesser  casks,  or  bottles  ;  keep  it  cool  as  other  wines, 
and  in  ten  or  twelve  days  it  will  be  ripe. 

PEACH  AND  APRICOT  WINE. 

Take  peaches,  nectarines,  &c.  when  they  are  full 
of  juice,  pare  them  and  take  the  stones  out,  then  slice 
them  thin,  and  put  over  them  from  a  gjallon  to  two 
gallons  of  water,  and  a  quart  of  white  wine.  Place 
the  whole  on  a  fire  to  simmer  gently  for  a  considera- 
able  time,  till  the  sliced  fruit  becomes  soft ;  now 
pour  off  the  liquid  part  into  another  vessel,  containing 
more  peaches  that  have  been  sliced  but  not  heated ; 
let  them  stand  for  twelve  hours,  then  pour  out  the 
liquid  part,  and  press  what  remains  through  a  fine 
hair  bag.  Let  the  whole  be  now  put  into  a  cask  to 
ferment ;  then  add  of  loaf  sugar,  a  pound  and  a  half 
to  each  gallon.  Boil  well,  an  ounce  of  beaten  cloves 
in  a  quart  of  white  wine,  and  add  it,  this  will  give  the 
wine  a  deUcious  flavour. 

Wine  of  apricots  may  be  made  by  only  bruising 
them  and  pouring  the  hot  liquor  on  them.  This  wine 
does  not  require  so  much  sweetening.  To  give  it  a 
curious  flavour,  boil  an  ounce  of  mace,  and  half  an 
ounce  of  nutmegs,  in  a  quart  of  white  wine;  and 
when  the  \nne  is  fermenting  pour  the  liquid  in  hot. 
In  about  twenty  days,  or  a  month,  these  wines  wiU 
be  fit  for  bottling. 

EXCELLENT  COMPOUND  WINE. 

An  excellent  family  wine  may  be  made  of  equal 
parts  of  red,  white,  and  black  currants,  ripe  cherries 
and  raspberries,  well  bruised  and  mixed  ^vith  soft 
water,  in  the  proportion  of  four  pounds  of  fruit  to 


$6  WINES. 

one  gallon  of  water.  When  strained  and  pressed, 
three  pounds  of  moist  sugar  are  to  be  added  to  each 
gallon  of  liquid.  After  standing  open  for  three  days, 
during  which  it  is  to  be  stirred  frequently  ;  it  is  to 
be  put  into  a  barrel,  and  left  for  a  fortnight  to  work, 
when  a  ninth  part  of  brandy  is  to  be  added,  and  the 
whole  bunged  down.  In  a  few  months  it  will  be  a 
most  excellent  wine. 

QUINCE  WINE. 

Gather  the  quinces  when  pretty  ripe,  in  a  dry  day, 
rub  off  the  down  with  a  linen  cloth,  then  lay  them  in 
hay  or  straw  for  ten  days  to  perspire.  Now  cut  them 
in  quarters,  take  out  the  cores,  and  bruise  them  well 
in  a  mashing  tub  with  a  wooden  pestle.  Squeeze 
out  the  liquid  part,  by  pressing  them  in  a  hair  bag,  by 
degrees,  in  a  cider  press  ;  strain  this  liquor  through 
a  fine  sieve,  then  warm  it  gently  over  a  fire  and  skim 
it,  but  do  not  suffer  it  to  boil.  Now  sprinlde  into  it 
some  loaf  sugar  reduced  to  powder ;  then  in  a  gallon 
of  water  and  a  quart  of  white  wine,  boil  a  dozen  or 
fourteen  large  quinces  thinly  sliced ;  add  two  pounds 
of  fine  sugar,  and  then  strain  off  the  liquid  part,  and 
mingle  it  with  the  natural  juice  of  the  quinces  ;  put 
this  into  a  cask,  (not  to  fill  it)  and  mix  them  well  to- 
gether ;  then  let  it  stand  to  settle ;  put  in  two  or 
three  whites  of  eggs,  then  draw  it  off.  If  it  is  not 
sweet  enough,  add  more  sugar,  and  a  quart  of  the 
best  malmsey.  To  make  it  still  better,  boil  a  quar- 
ter of  a  pound  of  stoned  raisins,  and  half  an  ounce  of 
cinnamon  bark,  in  a  quart  of  the  liquor,  to  the  con- 
sumption of  a  third  part,  and  straining  it,  put  it  into 
the  cask  when  the  wine  is  fermenting. 


WLXES.  37 

BIRCH  WIXE. 

Tlie  season  for  obtaining  the  liquor  from  birch- 
trees  is  in  the  latter  end  of  February  or  the  beginning 
of  March,  before  the  leaves  shoot  out,  and  as  the  sap 
begins  to  rise.  If  the  time  is  delayed,  the  juice  will 
grow  too  thick  to  be  drawn  out.  It  should  be  as 
thin  and  clear  as  possible.  The  method  of  procuring 
the  juice,  is  by  boring  holes  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
and  fixing  facets  of  eider ;  but  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  tap  it  in  too  many  places  at  once,  for  fear  of 
injuring  the  tree.  If  the  tree  is  large,  it  may  be 
bored  in  five  or  six  places  at  once,  and  bottles  are 
to  be  placed  under  the  apertures  for  the  sap  to  flow 
into.  When  fo^r,  or  five  gallons  have  been  extract- 
ed from  different  trees,  cork  the  bottles  very  close, 
and  wax  them  till  the  wine  is  to  be  made,  which 
should  be  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  sap  has  been 
obtained.  Boil  the  sap,  and  put  four  pounds  of  loaf 
sugar  to  every  gallon,  also  the  peel  of  a  lemon  cut 
thin,  then  boil  it  again  for  nearly  a  hour,  skimming  it 
all  the  time.  Now  pour  it  into  a  tub,  and  as  soon  as 
it  is  almost  cold,  work  it  with  a  toast  spread  with 
yeast,  and  let  it  stand  five  or  six  days,  stirring  it  two 
or  three  times  each  day.  Into  a  cask  that  will  con- 
tain it.  put  a  lighted  brimstone  match,  stop  it  up  till 
the  match  is  burnt  out,  and  tiien  pour  the  "wine  into 
it,  putting  the  bung  lightly  in,  till  it  is  done  working. 
Bung  it  very  close  for  about  three  months,  and  then 
bottle  it  It  will  be  good  in  a  week  after  it  is  put 
into  the  bottles. 


38  WINES. 

ORANGE  WINE. 

To  six  gallons  of  water  put  fifteen  pounds  of  soft 
sugar;  before  it  boils,  add  the  whites  of  six  eggs 
well  beaten,  and  take  off  the  scum  as  it  rises  ;  boil 
it  half  an  hour;  when  cool,  add  the  juice  of  fifty- 
oranges,  and  two-thirds  of  the  peel  cut  very  thin ; 
and  immerse  a  toast  covered  with  yeast.  In  a  month 
after  it  has  been  in  the  cask,  add  a  pint  of  brandy 
and  two  quarts  of  Rhenish  wine  :  it  will  be  fit  to  bot- 
tle in  three  or  four  months,  but  it  should  remain  in 
bottles  twelve  months  before  it  is  drank. 

GINGER  WINE. 

To  seven  gallons  of  water  put  nineteen  pounds  of 
clayed  sugar,  and  boil  it  for  half  an  hour,  taking  oif 
the  scum  as  it  rises;  then  take  a  small  quantit}  of 
the  liquor,  and  add  to  it  nine  ounces  of  the  best  gin- 
ger bruised.  Now  put  it  all  together,  and  when 
nearly  cold,  chop  nine  pounds  of  raisins,  very  small 
and  put  them  into  a  nine  gallon  cask  (beer  measure) 
with  one  ounce  of  isinglass.  Slice  four  lemons  into 
the  cask,  taking  out  all  the  seeds,  and  pour  the  liquor 
over  them,  with  half  a  pint  of  fresh  yeast.  Leave  it 
unstopped  for  three  weeks,  in  about  three  months  it 
will  be  fit  for  bottling. 

Observations.  There  will  be  one  gallon  of  the 
sugar  and  water  more  than  the  cask  will  hold  at  first ; 
this  must  be  kept  to  fill  up,  as  the  liquor  works  off; 
as  it  is  necessary  the  cask  should  be  kept  full,  till  it 
has  done  working.  The  raisins  should  be  two-thirds 
Malaga,  and  one-third  Muscadel.  Spring  and  Au- 
tumn are  the  best  seasons  for  making  this  >\  ine. 


W1NE9.  39 

PARSNIP  WIXE. 

To  twelve  pounds  of  parsnips  cut  in  slices,  add 
four  gallons  of  water,  boil  them  till  they  become  quite 
soft.  Squeeze  the  liquor  well  out  of  them,  run  it 
through  a  sieve,  and  add  to  every  gallon  three  pounds 
of  loaf  sugar.  Boil  the  whole  three  quarters  of  an 
hour,  and  when  it  is  nearly  cold  add  a  little  yeast.— 
Let  it  stand  for  ten  days  in  a  tub,  stirring  it  every 
day  from  the  bottom,  then  put  it  into  a  cask  for 
twelve  months  :  as  it  works  over  fill  it  up  eyer}^  day. 

IMITATION  OF  CYPRUS  WINE. 

To  ten  gallons  of  water,  put  ten  quarts  of  the  juice 
of  white  elderberries,  pressed  gently  from  the  berries 
by  the  hand,  and  passed  through  a  sieve,  without 
bruising  the  seeds :  add  to  every  gallon  of  liquor 
three  pounds  of  Lisbon  sugar,  add  to  the  whole 
quantity,  two  oimces  of  ginger  sliced,  and  an  ounce 
of  cloves.  Boil  this  nearly  an  hour,  taking  off  the 
scum  as  it  rises,  and  pour  the  whole,  to  cool,  in  an 
open  tub,  and  work  it  with  ale  yeast,  spread  upon  a 
toast  of  bread,  for  three  days.  Then  turn  it  into  a 
vessel  that  will  just  hold  it,  adding  about  a  pound 
and  a  half  of  bruised  raisins,  to  lie  in  the  liquor  till 
drawn  off,  which  should  not  be  till  the  wine  is  fine. 

Obsei'vation.  This  wine  is  so  much  like  the  fine 
rich  wine  brought  from  the  island  of  C3  prus,  in  col- 
our, taste,  and  flavour,  that  it  has  deceived  the  best 
judges. 

MEAD. 

To  thirteen  gallons  of  water,  put  thirty  pounds  of 
honey,  boil  and  skim  it  well,  then  add  of  rosemary. 


4i6  Wines. 

thyme,  bay  leaves  and  sweet  briar,  about  a  handful 
altogether.  Boil  the  whole  for  an  hour;  then  put  it 
in  a  tub,  with  two  or  three  handfuls  of  ground  malt ; 
stir  it  till  about  blood  warm ;  then  strain  it  through  a 
cloth,  and  put  it  into  tlie  tub  again.  T*^ow  cut  a  toast, 
and  spread  it  over  with  good  ale  yeast,  and  put  it  into 
the  tub.  When  the  liquor  has  properly  fermented, 
put  it  into  a  cask,  then  take  of  cloves,  mace  and  nut-* 
megs,  each  an  ounce  and  a  half;  of  ginger  sliced  an 
ounce,  bruise  the  spices  and  tie  them  up  in  a  cloth, 
and  hang  it  in  the  vessel,  which  stop  up  close  for  use; 

COWSLIP    WINE. 

Boil  five  pounds  of  loaf  sugar  with  four  gallons  of 
water,  simmer  them  over  a  fire  for  half  an  hour,  and 
when  taken  off,  and  cold,  put  in  half  a  peck  of  cow- 
slip flowers,  clean  picked  and  gently  bruised.  Now 
add  two  spoonfulls  of  ale-yeast,  and  a  pound  of  syrup 
of  lemons,  with  a  lemon  peel  or  two.  Pour  the  whole 
into  a  well  seasoned  cask  or  vessel,  let  them  stand  close 
stopped  for  three  days,  that  they  may  ferment  well ; 
then  put  in  some  juice  of  cowslips,  and  give  it  a  con- 
venient space  to  v.'ork.  When  it  has  stood  a  month, 
draw  it  off  into  bottles,  putting  a  little  lump  of  sugar 
into  each,  by  which  means  it  may  be  kept  well  for 
the  space  of  a  year.  In  like  manner,  wines  may  be 
made  of  other  flowers  which  possess  a  pleasant  taste 
and  odour,  as  oxlips,  jessamine,  &c. 

GILLIFLOWER    WINE. 

To  three  gallons  of  water,  put  six  pounds  of  the 
best  raw  sugar;  boil  the  sugar  and  water  together 
for  the  space  of  lialf  an  hour,  keep  skimming  it  as 


Wines.  4i 

the  scum  rises.  Now  let  it  stand  to  cool,  beat  up 
three  ounces  of  Syrup  of  Betony  with  a  large  spoonful 
of  ale  yeast  put  into  the  liquor,  and  having  a  peck  of 
gilliflowers,  cut  from  the  stalks,  put  them  in,  to  infuse 
and  work  together  for  three  days,  the  whole  being 
covered  with  a  cloth ;  strain  it  and  put  it  into  a  cask^ 
let  it  settle  for  three  or  four  weeks,  and  then  bottle  it. 

MULBERRY  WINE. 

On  a  dry  day,  gather  mulberries,when  they  are  just 
changed  from  redness  to  a  shining  black,  spread 
them  thinly  on  a  line  cloth,  or  on  a  floor  or  table,  for 
twenty-four  hours ;  and  press  them.  Now  boil  a 
gallon  of  water  with  each  gallon  of  juice  ;  putting  to 
every  gallon  of  Avater,  an  ounce  of  cinnamon  barkj 
and  six  ounces  of  sugar  candy,  finely  powdered. — 
Skim  and  strain  tlie  water  when  it  is  taken  off  and 
settled,  and  put  it  to  the  mulberry-juice.  Now  add 
to  every  gallon  of  the  mixture,  a  pint  of  white  or 
Rhenish  wine.  Let  the  whole  stand  in  a  cask  to  fer- 
ment, for  five  or  six  days.  When  settleddraw  it  off 
into  bottles  and  keep  it  cool. 

RASPBERRY  WINE. 

Gather  the  raspberries  when  ripe,  husk  them,  and 
bruise  them  ;  then  strain  them  through  a  bag  into  jars 
or  other  vessels.  Boil  the  juice,  and  to  every  gallon 
put  a  pound  and  a  half  of  lump  sugar.  Now  add 
whites  of  eggs,  and  let  the  whole  boil  for  fifteen 
minutes  ;  skimming  it  as  the  froth  rises.  When  cool 
and  settled,  decant  the  liquor  into  a  cask,  adding 
yeast  to  make  it  ferment.  When  this  has  taken  place 
add  a  pint  of  white  wine,  or  half  a  pint  proof  spirit 


42  WINES. 

to  each  gallon  contained  in  the  cask,  and  hang  a  bag 
in  it  containing  an  ounce  of  bruised  mace.  In  three 
months,  if  kept  in  a  cool  place,  it  will  be  a  very  ex- 
cellent and  delicious  wine. 

FRENCH   METHOD. 

Steep  two  gallons  of  raspberries  in  a  gallon  of 
sack  for  twenty  four  hours,  them  strain  them,  and  put 
to  the  liquor  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  sun  raisins 
well  stoned.  Let  them  continue  for  four  or  five  days, 
sometimes  stirring  them  well ;  then  pour  the  liquid 
off  gently,  and  bottle  it  up.  If  not  sweet  enough  add 
some  sugar,  about  half  a  pound  to  a  gallon  will  be 
sufficient ;  keep  it  in  a  cool  place. 

DAMSON  WINE. 

Take  a  considerable  quantity  of  damsons  and  com- 
mon plumbs  inclining  to  ripeness  ;  slit  them  in  halves 
so  that  the  stones  may  be  taken  out,  then  mash  them 
gently,  and  add  a  little  hone}*  and  water.  Add  to 
every  gallon  of  the  pulp  a  gallon  of  spring  water, 
with  a  few  bay  leaves  and  cloves  ;  boil  the  mixture, 
and  add  as  much  sugar  as  will  well  sweeten  it,  skim 
off  the  froth  and  let  it  cool.  Now  press  the  fruit, 
squeezing  out  the  liquid  part ;  strain  all  through  a 
fine  strainer,  and  put  ihe  water  aiid  juice  together 
in  a  cask.  Having  allowed  the  whole  to  stand  and 
ferment  for  three  or  four  days,  fine  it  with  white 
sugar,  flour  and  Avhites  of  eggs,  draw  it  off  into  bot- 
tles, then  cork  it  well,  in  twelve  days  it  will  be 
ripe,  and  will  taste  like  weak  port,  having  a  flavour 
of  canatT. 


WINES.  43 


AMERICAN   WINE. 


The  following  was  commimicated  to  the  public  by 
Joseph  Cooper,  Esq.  of  New-Jersey. 

"  I  put  a  quantity  of  the  comb,  from  which  honey 
had  been  drained,  into  a  tub,  and  added  a  barrel  of 
cider,  immediately  from  the  press  ;  this  mixture  was 
well  stirred,  and  left  for  one  night.  It  was  then 
strained  before  fermentation  took  place  ;  and  honey 
was  added,  until  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquor 
was  sufficiently  to  bear  an  egg.  It  was  then  put  in- 
to a  barrel ;  and  after  the  fermentation  commenced, 
the  cask  was  filled  every  day,  for  three  or  four  days, 
that  the  froth  might  work  out  of  the  bung  hole.  When 
the  fermentation  moderated,  I  put  the  bung  in  loosely 
lest  stopping  it  tight  might  cause  the  cask  to  burst. 
At  the  end  of  five  or  six  weeks,  the  liquor  was  drawn 
off  into  a  tub ;  and  the  whites  of  eight  eggs,  well 
beaten  up,  with  a  pint  of  clean  sand,  were  put  into 
it.  I  then  added  a  gallon  of  cider  spirit ;  and  after 
mixing  the  whole  together,  I  returned  it  in  to  the  cask, 
which  was  well  cleaned,  bunged  tight,  and  placed  in 
a  proper  situation  for  racking  off,  when  fine.  In  the 
month  of  April,  following,  I  drew  it  off  into  kegs,  for 
use  ;  and  found  it  equal  to  almost  any  foreign  wine : 
in  the  opinion  of  many  judges  it  was  superior. 

Observations.  This  success  has  induced  me  to  re- 
peat the  experiment  for  three  years ;  and  I  am  per- 
suaded, that,  by  using  clean  honey  instead  of  the 
comb,  as  above  described,  such  an  improvement 
might  be  made,  as  would  enable  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States  to  supply  themselves  with  a  truly 
federal  and  wholesome  wine,  which  would  not  cost  a 
quarter  of  a  dollar  per  gallon,  were  all  the  ingredients 


||4  WINE5. 

procured  at  the  market  price.  It  would  have  this 
peculiar  advantage,  that  it  contains  no  foreign  mix- 
ture, but  is  made  from  ingredients  produced  on  our 
own  farms." 

RAISIN  WINE. 

Put  two  hundred  weight  of  raisins,  with  the  stalks 
into  a  hogshead,  and  fill  it  almost  with  spring  water ; 
let  them  steep  for  about  twelve  days,  frecjuently  stir- 
ring, and  after  pouring  off  the  juice,  dress  the  raisins, 
and  mash  them.  The  whole  should  be  put  together 
in  a  clean  vessel  that  will  exactly  contain  it.  It  will 
hiss  for  some  time,  during  which  it  shouJd  not  be 
stirred ;  but  when  the  noise  ceases,  it  must  be  stop- 
ped close,  and  stand  for  about  six  or  seven  months  ; 
and  then,  if  it  proves  fine  and  clear,  rack  it  off  into 
another  vessel  of  the  same  size.  Stop  it  up  and  let 
it  remain  for  twelve  or  fourteen  weeks  longer,  then 
bottle  it  off.  If  it  should  not  prove  clear,  fine  it  down 
with  three  ounces  of  isinglass,  and  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  sugar  candy,  dissolved  in  some  of  the  wine. 

RAISIN  WINE,  EQUAL  TO  SHERRY. 

Let  the  raisins  be  well  washed  and  picked  from 
the  stalks  ;  to  every  pound  thus  prepared  and  chop- 
ped, add  one  quart  of  Avater,  which  has  been  boiled 
and  has  stood  till  it  is  cold.  Let  the  whole  stand  in 
the  vessel  for  a  month,  being  frequently  stirred ;  now 
let  the  raisins  be  taken  from  the  cask,  and  let  the 
liquor  be  closely  stopped  in  the  vessel.  In  the 
course  of  a  month  let  it  be  racked  into  another  ves- 
sel, leaving  all  the  sediment  behind,  which  must  be 
repeated  till  it  becomes  fine ;  when  add  to  eveiy  ten 


WINES.  4^ 

gallons,  six  pounds  of  fine  sugar,  and  one  dozen  of 
Seville  oranges,  the  rinds  being  pared  very  thin,  and 
infused  in  two  quarts  of  brandy,  which  should  be 
added  to  the  hquor  at  the  last  racking.  Let  the 
Mhole  stand  three  months  in  the  cask,  when  it  will 
be  fit  for  bottling ;  it  should  remain  in  the  bottles  for 
a  twelvemonth. 

To  give  it  the  flavour  of  Madeira,  when  it  is  in  theS 
cask,  put  in  a  couple  of  green  citrons,  and  let  thero 
remain  till  the  wine  is  bottled. 

GRAPE  WINE. 

To  every  gallon  of  ripe  grapes,  put  a  gallon  of  soft 
water,  bruise  the  grapes,  let  them  stand  a  week  with- 
out stirring,  and  draw  the  liquor  off  fine ;  to  every 
gallon  of  wine  put  three  pounds  of  lump  sugar ;  put 
the  whole  into  a  vessel,  but  do  not  stop  it  till  it  has 
done  hissing,  then  stop  it  close,  and  in  six  months  it 
will  be  fit  for  bottling.  A  better  wine,  though  small- 
er in  quantit}',  will  be  made  by  leaving  out  the  water 
and  diminishing  the  quantity  of  sugar.  Water  is  ne- 
cessary, only  w^here  the  juice  is  so  scanty,  or  so  thick, 
as  in  cowslip,  balm,  or  black  currant  wine,  that  it 
could  not  be  used  without  it. 

ObseiTations.  It  will  here  be  necessary  for  the 
reader's  information,  to  examine  the  peculiar  quali- 
ties on  which  the  excellency  of  several  foreign  wines 
depends.  Spain  and  Portugal  being  those  countries 
of  Europe  were  vines  are  cultivated  in  the  greatest 
perfection,  and  where  the  most  careful  attention  is 
paid  to  the  manufacture  of  the  several  sorts  of  wine, 
we  shall  in  this  place  take  a  summary  view  of  each. 


46  WINES. 

SPANISH    AND    PORTUGUESE    WINES. 

The  wines  of  Spain  are  of  two  descriptions,  viz. : 
white  and  red,  and  are,  ior  the  most  part,  excellent. 
The  greatest  quantities  are  made  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  sale  is  very  extensive, 
especially  among  the  English  and  Dutch.  The  wines 
of  the  Canaries,  altaough  not  actually  Spanish,  are 
to  be  met  with  in  most  of  the  parts  of  Spain,  and  are 
usually  classed  with  the  wines  of  that  country.  Al- 
though the  whole  of  the  Canaries  produce  excellent 
wines,  the  preference  is  given  to  those  of  Parma  aiid 
TeneritFe.  When  the  vintage  proves  favourable, 
Teneriffe  annually  makes  up  about  30,000  pipes  of 
Vidonia,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  denominated  i.astard 
Madeira^  from  the  similarity  of  its  flavour  and  ap- 
pearance to  the  dry  wine  of  the  last  mentioned  Isl- 
and. Teneriii'e  also  produces  a  sweet  wine,  which 
is  nearly  similar  to  Malmsey  Madeira. 

The  wine  of  Chacoli  in  Biscay  is  not  of  a  first  rate 
quality.  In  order  to  produce  this  wine  the  Biscay- 
ans  ingraft  live  or  six  different  vines  upon  the  same 
stalk.  Most  parts  of  Biscay  abound  in  these  vines, 
which  border  the  high  roads,  generally  growing  to 
the  height  of  about  three  or  four  feet.  The  wine  in 
Biscay  is  sold  at  a  certain  price,  as  regulated  by  the 
police,  and  until  the  whole  produce  of  the  vintage  is 
disposed  of,  no  foreign  wine  is  permitted  to  be  brought 
into  the  province ;  hence  it  happens  that  the  sole 
study  of  the  proprietors  of  vineyards  is  to  collect  a 
large  quantity  of  wine,  without  attending  to  quality 
or  llavour,  and  consequently  Chacoli  has  become 
proverbially  despicable  in  Spain.  Indeed,  the  grapes 
are  not  allowed  to  arrive  at  a  state  of  maturity,  but 


WINES.  47 

are  gathered  and  squeezed,  while  sour  and  nearly 
devoid  of  substance :  but,  if  the  juice  were  allowed  to 
collect  and  meliorate  in  the  grape,  if  the  green  fruit 
were  not  mingled  with  the  ripe,  if  the  wines  were 
made  with  the  same  care  as  those  of  other  province  , 
this  wine  would  prove  equal  m  every  respect  (ex- 
cept that  of  seniority)  to  the  French  Champaign, 
which,  of  its  kind,  stands  at  present  unrivalled. 

The  wine  of  Guidas  in  Castile  is  made  from  cher- 
ries, and  is  a  species  of  ratafia.  Foucal  wine,  wliich 
takes  its  name  from  a  village  near  Madrid,  is  of  a 
good  qualitj",  but  is  only  reckoned  ordinary. 

The  wines  of  Val  de  Penas,  Ciudad  Real,  Ribada- 
via,  and  Rioxa,  and  those  called  La  Mancha  are  very 
good,  and  except  in  regard  to  different  degrees  of 
colour,  are  similar  in  every  respect 

The  best  wines  of  Arragon  are  those  denominated 
Garnachas,  from  the  species  of  grape  which  produces 
them  :  the  best  of  all  is  a  red  wine  named  Hospital ; 
it  is  excellent  as  to  flavour  and  strength.  Caninea, 
called  likewise  white  Ganiachas,  is  very  fine,  and  is 
much  esteemed. 

The  wines  of  Peralta,  Tudela,  Tafalla,  and  Aran- 
dillo,  in  Navarre,  are  nearly  alike,  and  are  excellent 
both  as  to  flavour  and  quality.  That  of  Peralta  is 
well  known  under  the  title  of  Rancio,  which  it  re- 
ceives when  old  enough  to  merit  that  distinction.  To 
these  may  be  added  the  wine  of  Iluesca,  which  is 
very  good. 

The  wines  of  Xeres,  better  known  under  the  name 
of  Sherry,  are  made  at  the  town  of  that  name,  in  the 
province  of  Andalusia.  They  are  not  only  dry,  but 
sweet;  the  dry,  hovrever,  are  the  most  esteemed. 


'48  "WINES. 

more  particularly  when  they  present  a  pale  straw 
colour.  Man}',  who  are  in  the  habit  of  tasting  Sher- 
ry, have  doubtless  perceived  that  there  is  something 
in  its  flavour  which  partakes  of  the  taste  of  leather ; 
this  is  owing  to  the  custom  of  bringing  the  wines 
down  the  country  in  large  leathern  vessels,  or  as  the 
Spaniards  call  them,  boots ;  whence  we  derive  our 
term,  butts,  which  we  bestow  upon  the  casks  where- 
in we  receive  the  wines. 

In  Andalusia  are  made  sweet  and  dry  wines,  called 
Pagarete  and  San  Lucar,  and  the  strong  well  known 
red  wine,  denominated  Tinto  Rota,  or  Tent,  which  is 
Tin  excellent  stomachic.  The  Montilla  is  a  dry  wine. 
The  territory  of  Xeres,  alone,  annually  produces  a- 
bove  60,000  pipes  of  wine. 

In  the  province  of  Grenada  is  made  the  celebrated 
wine  called  Mountain  or  Malaga.  It  is  dry  and 
sweet,  and  both  red  and  white.  It  is  truly  a  delici- 
ous wine,  and  is  much  esteemed.  The  sweet  moun- 
tain is  the  most  sought  after,  and  is  usually  employed 
as  a  dessert  wine.  Grenada  produces  Peroximenes 
or  Pedro  Ximenes,  which  is  a  very  fine  flavoured,  full 
bodied  wine.  There  is  also  a  kind  of  Malmsey  made 
in  this  province,  which  is  exquisite ;  but  that  of  Ma- 
ravella  is  only  an  ordinary  wine. 

In  Valentia  is  found  the  Tinto  Alicante,  a  wine 
much  used  in  France ;  it  is  sweet  when  new,  but 
grows  thick  and  ropy  as  it  becomes  aged :  it  is  a 
good  stomachic. 

The  Benicarlo  wine  is  red,  dry,  and  thick ;  it  is 
often  palmed  upon  tlie  public  by  wine  dealers,  as 
Port  wine  ;  to  which  it  is  very  inferior,  both  in  qual- 
ity and  price.     An  imposition  of  this  sort  is  to  be 


WINES.  4i 

Avoided,  by  observing  whether  the  ^vine  offered  have 
a  ruby  colour,  instead  of  a  deep  black;  a  generous 
flavour,  and  not  that  harshness  which  immediately 
offends  a  good  palate  :  if  not,  it  assuredly  cannot  be 
Port  wine.  The  wine  called  Siches,  and  that  called 
Garnache,  both  made  in  Catalonia,  are  exquisite.  In 
the  same  province  are  made  Tinto  de  las  Montanos, 
or  Mountain  Tent,  and  Mataro  wine ;  both  of  which 
are  sweet,  thick,  ropy,  and  unwholesome.  The  latter 
is  often  sold  by  irreputable  traders,  to  private  fami- 
lies, as  Tent. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  observe  that  the  wine  call- 
ed Port,  of  which  such  vast  quantities  are  consumed 
in  Great  Britain,  is  the  produce  of  Portugal.  The 
vines,  whence  it  is  made,  grow  upon  the  banks  of  the 
Douro,  about  fourteen  or  fifteen  leagues  from  Oporto^ 
and  occupy  a  space  about  six  leagues  in  length,  and 
two  leagues  in  breadth.  These  vineyards  produce 
between  60  and  70,000  pipes  of  Port,  and  there  are 
others  which  yield  nearly  6,000  pipes  annually.  The 
Vine  whence  we  derive  our  Port,  originally  grew  iii 
Burgundy  ;  but  the  climate  of  Portugal  being  widely 
different  from  that  of  Burgundy,  has  caused  such  an 
alteration  in  the  grape,  that  no  two  wines  are  more 
unlike  than  those  which  are  the  produce  of  the  above 
mentioned  territories. 

The  wines  of  Portugal,  like  those  of  Biscay,  are 
only  sold  at  the  prices  annually  regulated  by  the 
government.  As  soon  as  the  prices  are  promulgated j 
the  factory  and  individuals  send  in  their  names  to 
the  proprietors  of  the  wines ;  the  whole  of  the  Port 
wine  is  shipped  at  Oporto. 

7 


30  WINES. 

The  brandy  of  Spain  constitutes  a  considerable 
article  of  commerce  ;  it  is  very  inferior  to  the  brandy 
of  France,  and  is  principally  used  in  making  up  Span- 
ish and  Portuguese  wines.  The  brandy  of  Portugal 
is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  Spain,  and  very  little  of 
it  is  exported. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  natural  produce  of 
wines,  various  attempts  have  been  made  and  with 
success,  at  a  synthetical  preparation  of  this  beverage. 
It  is  to  be  feared,  that  this  practice  is  sometimes  car- 
ried on,  without  regard  either  to  science  or  humanity. 
Indeed  there  are  many  compounds  sold  in  London 
and  elsewhere,  intended  to  imitate  Port  and  other 
wines,  which  agree  with  them  in  no  character  save 
in  colour  ar;d  astringency ;  and  these,  it  is  known, 
are  given  to  them  by  the  most  pernicious  ingredients. 

But  the  French,  and  other  chemists,  have  really 
produced  wines,  which  possessed  all  tlie  agreeable 
properties  of  those  produced  from  grapes.  This  was 
done,  by  first  analysing  the  wine  to  be  imitated,  and 
then,  by  appoilioning  the  quantities  of  the  several 
inuredients  which  existed  in  the  wine  naturall}'.  In 
this  way,  Fabroni  made  wine,  from  864  pounds  of 
sugar,  24  pounds  of  gum  arable,  24  pounds  of  tartar, 
3  pounds  of  tartarous  acid,  36  pounds  of  gluten  of 
wheat,  and  1728  quarts  of  water.  Parmentier  made 
a  good  Muscadine  wine  from  216  pounds  sugar,  nine 
pounds  of  crystals  of  tartar,  72  of  elderflowers,  and 
307  of  water.  The  colonists  in  the  West  Indies,  pre- 
pare a  wine  from  200  lbs.  of  sugar,  two  barrels  of  wa- 
ter, and  four  pounds  of  yeast;  this  wine  is  coloured 
with  litmus,  and  scented  with  some  essential  oil. 


WINES.  51 

In  addition  to  these  synthetical  ipTer>B.mtiom,  it  may- 
be observed,  that  others  of  an  analogous,  but  of  a 
more  surprising  nature,  have  recently  been  effected. 
Kirchoff,  a  Russian  chemist,  discovered  that  starch 
may  be  converted  into  sugar,  possessing  all  the  pro- 
perties of  sugar  from  grapes,  by  mixing  it  with  about 
four  times  its  weight  of  water,  and  about  one  hun- 
dredth part  of  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid.  This 
discovery  was  confirmed  by  Saussure,  who  ascertain- 
ed that  I  GO  parts  of  starch  became  1 10. 14  parts  when 
converted  into  sugar.  The  same  subject  beirg 
successfully  resumed  by  M.  Braconnot,  he  discovered 
the  important  fact,  that  a  sugar  similar  to  that  of 
grapes,  may  be  obtained  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid, 
from  the  sawings  of  wood,  old  linen,  and  paper. 

In  this  operation,  a  certain  quantity  of  these  sub- 
stances is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  concentrated 
by  cold.  The  mass  appears  to  be  carbonised,  but  this 
appearance  arises  from  a  stratum  of  black  powder ' 
which  covers  it ;  and  which  when  removed  b}'  wash- 
ing, is  converted  into  a  true  gum,  resembling  gum 
arabic.  This  gum  is  separated  from  the  sulphuric 
acid,  in  excess,  by  means  of  the  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  it  remains  in  the  liquor.  By  afterwards  treating 
this  gum  with  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  with  water,  it  is 
converted  into  true  sugar,  the  quantity  of  which  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  sawings  of  wood,  or  the  linen 
employed.  In  addition  to  this  sugar,  which  forms 
almost  the  whole  of  the  mass,  M.  Braconnot  obtain- 
ed another  substance,  which  he  called  the  vegeto  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  sugar  in  question,  was  of  the  con- 
sistency of  syrup  ;  at  the  end  of  twenty  four  hours  it 
began  to  chrs  stalize,  and  some  days  after  the  whole 


Jl^  WINES. 

was  condensed  into  a  single  mass  of  crystalized  su- 
gar, which  was  pressed  strongly  between  several 
folds  of  old  cloth  ;  crystalized  a  second  time,  this  su- 
gar was  passably  pure ;  but  treated  with  animal  char- 
coal, it  became  of  a  shining  whiteness.  The  crystals 
were  in  spherical  groups,  which  appear  to  be  formed 
by  the  union  of  small  diverging  and  unequal  plates. 
They  are  fusible  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 
The  sugar  is  of  a  fresh  and  agreeable  flavour,  pro- 
ducing in  the  mouth  a  slight  sensation  of  acidity. 

Mingled  in  a  proper  quantity  of  water,  set  fn  fer- 
mentation, and  hopped  according  to  the  method  of 
brewers,  the  syrup  above  mentioned  furnishes  a  beer, 
■yvhich  is  light,  brisk,  strong,  and  of  an  agreeable  sa- 
vour. 

After  having  ascertained  that  all  ligneous  matter, 
such  as  v/ood,  bark,  straw,  hemp,  &c.,  may  be  trans- 
formed into  gum,  and  into  sugar,  by  sulphuric  acid  ; 
M,  Braconnot  extended  his  researches  to  the  parts 
pf  animals,  and  he  began  with  gelatine,  as  obtained 
from  the  skin,  membranes,  tendons,  &c.,  of  animals. 
He  found  that  gelatine  may  be  converted  by  sulphur- 
ic acid  into  a  crystalizable  sugar  sui  generis,  which 
probably  does  not  exist  in  nature.  It  crystalizes 
more  readily  than  that  from  the  cane.  It  is  less  fu- 
sible, and  it  contains  azote.  Its  sweetness  is  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  the  sugar  of  grapes.  Its  solubility  in 
VifiXev  is  not  greater  than  that  of  sugar  of  milk,  with 
which  it  has,  at  first  sight,  some  analogies.  By  slow 
evaporation,  it  yields  crystals  as  hard  as  sugar  candy, 
and  in  the  form  of  flat  prisms,  or  tables  grouped  to- 
gether. He  also  found  that  the  sugar  of  gelatine 
pombines  intijuately  with  the  nitric  acid,  (with  sensii 


DISTILLATION.  53 

ble  decomposition,  and  even  without  the  aid  of  heat,) 
and  then  forms  a  new  acid,  to  which  he  has  given  the 
name  of  the  niiro-saccharic. 


DISTILLATION. 

The  object  of  distillatio3i  is  the  preparation  of  spi- 
rituous and  other  volatile  liquors.  These  consist  of 
alcohol  or  pure  spirit,  which  is  obtained  from  any  spi- 
rituous liquor;  brandy,  rum,  arrack,  and  whiskey, 
prepared  from  wine,  sugar,  rice,  and  malt ;  and  com- 
pound spirits,  or  those  which,  in  addition  to  alcohol, 
contain  some  volatile  or  pungent  oil  or  essence — as 
gin,  hollands,  carraway,  and  peppermint ;  the  essen- 
tial oils,  as  oil  of  cinnamon,  oil  of  cloves,  oil  of  pep- 
permint, and  otto  of  roses  ;  and  the  simple  distilled 
waters,  ^vhich  retain  the  fragrant  flavour  of  the  par- 
ticular herbs  with  which  they  have  been  distilled. 

We  shall  here  detail  the  several  modes  of  opera- 
tion, which  are  commonly  adopted,  for  the  distillation 
of  liquors,  strongly  impregnated  by  alcohol  or  ardent 
spirit. 

Although  brandy,  rum,  arrack,  geneva,  malt  spirits, 
&c.,  differ  much  in  colour,  taste,  smell,  and  other  pro- 
perties, the  spirituous  part,  or  alcohol,  is  the  same  in 
all :  their  peculiar  properties  depending,  generally, 
upon  the  presence  of  some  essential  oil,  and  water  in 
varied  proportions. 

Previous  to  the  operation  of  distilling,  those  of 
brewing  and  fermentation  are  necessary.  The  fer- 
mentation ought  always  to  be  carried  on  as  slowly  as 


M  "DISTILLATION. 

possible,  and  performed  in  vessels  closely  stop])ed, 
only  having  at  the  bung  a  valve  pressed  down  by  a 
spring,  which  will  yield  with  less  force  than  is  suffi- 
cient to  burst  the  vessel.  It  should  even  be  suffered 
to  remain  till  it  has  become  perfectly  fine  and  trans- 
parent ;  as  by  this  means  the  spirit  will  not  only  be 
superior  in  quantity,  but  also  in  fragrance,  pungency, 
and  vinosity,  to  tliat  otherwise  produced. 

With  regard  to  performing  the  operation  of  distil- 
ling, there  is  only  one  general  rule  that  can  be  given, 
namely,  to  let  the  heat,  in  all  cases,  be  as  gentle  as 
possible.  A  water  bath,  if  sufficiently  large,  is  pre- 
ferable to  any  other  mode,  and  will  perform  the  op- 
eration with  all  the  dispatch  requisite  for  the  most 
extensive  business. 

As  the  end  of  rectification  is  to  make  the  spirit 
clean  as  well  as  strong,  or  to  deprive  it  of  the  essen- 
tial oil,  as  well  as  of  the  aqueous  part,  it  will  be  pro- 
per to  have  regard  to  this,  even  in  the  first  distilla- 
tion. For  this  purpose,  the  spirit,  as  it  first  comes 
over,  should  be  received  into  a  quantity  of  cold  wa- 
ter; as  by  this  means  the  connexion  between  it  and 
the  oily  matter  will  be  considerably  lessened.  For 
the  same  reason,  after  it  has  once  been  rectified  in  the 
Avater-bath,  it  should  be  again  mixed  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  water,  and  chstilled  a  second  time.  Thus 
the  spirit  will  be  freed  from  most  of  the  oily  matter, 
even  though  it  has  been  very  much  im])regna(ed 
with  it,  at  first.  After  the  spirit  has  been  distilled, 
once  or  twice,  in  this  manner,  from  water,  it  may  be 
distilled  in  a  water-bath  without  any  addition ;  and 
this  last  rectification  will  free  it  from  the  greater  part 
of  the  water  it  may  contain.     In  distilling  compound 


DISTILLATION.  55 

spirits,  a  small  still  has  been  found  to  answer  better 
than  a  large  one. 

A  distiller's  apparatus  should  be  erf^cted  <  ■  an  out 
building,  to  pre\  ent  any  hazard  which  mig'  t  arise 
from  lire ;— -spirituous  liquors  being  remarkable  com- 
bustible.    If  such  an  accident  should  occur,  a  woolen 
blanket,  or  rug,  hung  over  a  roller  in  a  water  butt, 
is  the  readiest  and  best  extinguisher.     Let  the  dis- 
tillery be  large  enough  not  only  in  regard  to  tlie 
room  required  for  tiie  still,  the  worm-tub  and  the 
pump,  (which  should  be  all  ranged  together,)  but 
also,  that  the  spirits  and  wash,  &c.  may  be  contigu- 
ous to  the  still,  for  the  convenience  of  filling  or  ciiarg- 
ing  it.     Room  is  also  required  for  empty  vessels, 
tubs,  casks,  and  other  utensils.     The  still-house  floor 
should  be  paved  or  flagged,  with  a  considerable  de- 
scent for  carrying  ofi^  by  gutters  the  waste  wash  from 
the  stiUs  and  the  water  wliich  has  become  hot,  (and 
consequently  useless)  in  the  worm  tub  or  refrigera- 
tory. It  is  absolutely  necessary,  that  the  pump  should 
aflbrd  a  sufficiency  of  water  to  supply  the  still,  to 
cool  the  worm,  and  to  dilute  the  spirits  (to  a  certain 
degree)  after  distillation.     The  still,  if  of  a  middling 
size,  should  be  placed  upon  a  furnace  of  brick  work, 
having  a  fire-place  24  inciies  long,  9  inches  wide^  and 
22  iuches  high. 

Let  the  still-cock  come  so  far  through  the  brick 
work,  that  the  wash  may  run  out,  either  into  cans  or 
otherwise,  as  there  is  convemency  for  conveying  it 
away.  The  brick  work  about  the  still  must  be  ex- 
actly round,  as  high  as  the  upper  nails  of  the  still, 
(sloping  from  the  flame  lest  any  liquor  boil  over,)  and 
well  mortared;  also  covered  ail  round  with  coarse 


^6  DISTILLATlOiN. 

canvas  or  hop-sack,  to  keep  the  wall  from  crack-* 
ing. 

The  worm  tub  must  be  placed  very  near  the  still, 
upon  a  strong  wooden  frame  according  to  its  size, 
which  must  be  six  or  eight  times  the  capacity  of  the 
still,  so  that  every  stave  may  rest  firmly  upon  the 
frame;  the  better  to  support  the  great  weight  of 
such  a  quantity  of  water,  as  is  necessary  for  keeping 
the  worm  constantly  cold.  The  worm-tub-frame 
must  be  so  high,  that  when  the  tub  is  placed  upon  it, 
the  low  end  of  the  worm  which  comes  through  the 
the  tub,  will  admit  of  the  cans  being  readily  placed 
under,  and  taken  away  when  they  are  full.  The  up- 
per end  of  the  worm  must  be  placed  so,  that  the  arm 
of  the  still  head  may  go  into  it  without  any  difficulty, 
and  shut  so  close  as  to  be  easily  luted ;  and  the  tub 
must  stand  so  upright,  that  no  liquor  may  remain  in 
the  worm,  this  may  be  known  by  putting  a  pint  or 
quart  of  water  into  the  worm  which  will  run  out  at 
the  lower  end  of  it.  In  the  middle  of  the  worm  tub, 
place  a  wooden  gutter  three  or  four  inches  square 
Avithin,  to  reach  from  the  tob  to  the  bottom,  having 
about  three  or  four  inches  on  the  opposite  sides,  at 
the  bottom  end  of  it,  left  open ;  so  that  the  cold 
water  pumped  into  the  gutter,  may  flow  out  at  the 
two  breaches  to  the  lower  part  of  the  worm  tub. — 
This  will  force  all  the  hot  water  to  ascend  and  run 
either  over  the  worm-tub,  or  through  a  waste  pipe 
soldered  in  the  tub,  and  extending  down  the  sides  to 
convey  it  away.  The  pump  must  be  placed  next  the 
worm-tub,  and  must  be  of  such  a  height  that  the 
spout,  or  cock,  may  reach  the  gutter  fixed  in  the  mid- 
dle ;  so  that  the  v/atermavbe  more  easily,  and  with 


DISTILLATION.  57 

less  waste,  conveyed  into  the  tub  to  cool  the  worm, 
There  should,  also,  be  another  spout  or  cock  in  the 
pump,  rather  lower,  for  drawing  water  for  all  common 
uses;  the  higher  spout  being  closed,  and  only  ap- 
propriated for  cooling. 

It  will  be  likewise  necessary  to  have  a  large  back, 
set  upon  a  strong  frame,  to  command  the  worm-tub, 
and  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  water,  having  a 
large  brass  cock  communicating  with  the  still,  &c. 
This  will  be  of  very  great  service  on  any  emergency  ; 
and  may  be  drawn  off  in  much  less  time,  and  with 
less  trouble,  than  by  pumping  ;  for  the  still  may  ac- 
cidentally be  dry,  which  would  be  productive  of  dan- 
ger if  there  were  not  a  quantity  of  water  ready  at 
hand.  It  will  be  convenient  to  have  a  middle  sized 
press,  fixed  firmly  in  a  corner  of  the  distillery.  It 
should  have  a  strong  bed  to  contain  the  articles  to 
be  pressed.  There  should  also  be  six  hair  cloths 
somewhat  wider  than  the  press,  to  be  put  between 
the  layers  of  cherries,  elderberries,  raspberries,  &c., 
to  be  acted  on.  The  fruit  should  be  placed  in  thin 
layers ;  the  juice  will  run  off  by  a  spout  affixed  to 
the  press,  into  one  of  the  cans  placed  under  it. 

In  a  distillery,  are  required  a  variety  of  utensils, 
such  as  three  or  four  iron  bound  tubs,  capable  of  con- 
taining from  a  hogshead  to  a  pipe  of  any  liquor ; 
three  or  four  cans,  capable  of  holding  from  two  to 
six  gallons  by  measure ;  these  should  have  brass  or 
other  marks  in  their  necks,  to  which  they  should  be 
filled;  the  marks  are  intended  to  determine  the 
quantity  of  liquor.  Another  necessary  utensil,  is  an 
iron-bound  wooden  funnel,  which  by  computation 
will  hold  three  or  four  gallons,  having  a  strong  iron 


58  DISTILLATION. 

nosel,  or  pipe,  to  put  into  the  bung  holes  of  the 
casks. 

In  some  convenient  part  of  the  distillery  must  be 
placed  a  pretty  large  vessel,  either  covered  or  open, 
with  a  cock  in  it  in  which  all  afterrunnings,  washings 
of  casks,  drippings  of  the  cocks,  and  goods  accident- 
ally spoiled,  either  by  wrong  mixture,  or  otherwise  ; 
may  be  kept. 

The  contents,  when  in  sufficient  quantity,  may  at 
any  time  be  put  into  the  still  and  purified. 

Another  necessary  utensil,  is  a  strong  copper  or 
tin  pump,  five  feet  long  and  six  inches  m  circumfer- 
ence ;  its  nosel  about  six  inches  from  the  top  of  the 
pump,  and  about  fourteen  inches  long.  The  use  of 
this  pump,  with  its  appurtenances,  is  to  draw  tlie 
spirits  out  of  the  pieces,  into  the  cans,  to  charge  the 
still  with ;  and  for  many  similar  purposes.  A  pewter 
syphon  is  likewise  requisite  ;  it  should  be  made  some- 
what semilunar,  about  six  feet  and  a  half  long,  and 
four  inches  in  circumference.  This  instrument  is 
employed  to  draw  spirits  from  any  vessel,  where  the 
pump  cannot  play.  Flannel  bags  are  very  necessar}^ 
in  a  distillery,  for  refining  the  thick  and  feculent  mat- 
ter, at  the  bottom  of  casks,  and  other  vessels.  These 
bags  are  each  made  of  a  yard  of  coarse  flannel,  sloped 
so  as  to  have  their  bottoms  narrow,  and  their  tops  as 
wide  ^s  the  flannel  will  admit.  In  shape  they  re- 
semble inverted  cones.  They  are  to  be  well  sewed 
up  at  the  sides ;  and  their  upper  parts ;  are  to  be 
folded  round  wooden  hoops  and  well  fastened  to  them. 
The  hoops  being  perforated  in  several  places,  may 
be  suspended  by  cords  from  the  ceiling.  Lutes, 
whereby  the  joints  of  a  distilling  apparatus,  may 


DISTILLATION.  69 

be  so  closed  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  spirits, 
are  made  of  common  clay  with  carbonate  of  lime  and 
water.     When  the  still  is  charged,  let  the  fire  under 
it  be  lighted ;  and  whilst  it  burns  up,  the  joints  should 
be  carefully  luted.     The  fire  should  be  of  coals,which 
give  a  more  uniform  and  lasting  heat  than  wood. — 
In  Scotland,  peat,  or  turf,  is  used  for  this  purpose ; 
and  it  is  said,  that  the  spirits  distilled  by  such  fires, 
possess  a  peculiar  flavour  arising  from  this  practice. 
By  laying  the  hand  on  the  still  and  capital,  as  the 
fire  gains  strength,  the  process  of  the  operation  will 
be  ascertained ;  for  whenever  the  head  or  capital, 
feels  hot,  it  is  a  proof  that  the  volatile  particles  have 
arisen,  and  are  about  to  enter  the  worm.     When  the 
still  head  is  about  to  become  hot,  prepare  a  damp 
made  of  the   ashes  under  the  grate,  mixed  with  as 
much  water  as  will  properly  wet  them.     This  mix- 
ture is  to  be  thrown  upon  the  fire,  to  moderate  its 
action,  at  the  instant  when  the  distillation  has  com- 
menced.   By  this  precaution,  the  violence  of  the  fire 
will  be  abated ;  otherwise,  the  spirits  would  come 
through  the  worm,  in  a  rushing  stream,  and  very 
foul ;  whereas,  it  should  be  quite  limpid,  and  of  the 
size  of  a  goosequill.     When  one  or  two  cans  have 
been  filled  Avith  the  spirit  from  the  worm's  end,  there 
is  little  danger  from  the  fire,  which  may  now  be  per- 
mitted to  burn  bright  and  strong.     Continue  the  heat 
as  long  as  the  distilled  liquor  is  spirituous  to  the  taste. 
It  must  be  recollected,  however,  that  the  whole  of 
the  distilled  liquid  is  not  of  the  same  quality ;  that 
which  comes  over  first,  being  more  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  alcohol,  than  that  which  runs  off  towards 
the  conclusion  of  the  process.    These  are  of  course 


60  DlSTILLATIOxV. 

to  be  kept  separate.  The  weak  when  in  sufficient 
quantity,  may  be  re-distilled  alone,  or  it  may  be  put  into 
the  still  with  the  next  charge.  When  the  distilled 
liquor  carries  with  it  any  particular  flavour  it  should 
be  redistilled  with  essential  oils,  in  order  to  convert 
it  into  a  compound  spirit,  as  gin,  peppermint,  and 
other  cordials. 

When  all  the  spirituous  fluid  is  drawn  off"  the  still 
should  be  emptied  by  a  cock  in  the  side.  The 
head,  &c.  should  then  be  removed,  and  the  several 
lutes  taken  clean  off.  The  still  may  now  be  charged 
a  second  time  and  luted  ;  and  hen  the  process  is  to 
be  carried  on  as  before.  If  the  spirits  or  compound 
to  be  made,  is  of  a  difi'erent  nature,  or  flavour,  from 
that  procured  from  the  last  distillation,  the  still,  capi- 
tal, and  worm,  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  hot 
water,  sand  and  a  scrubbing-brush,  to  remove  the 
oily  particles  which  adhere  to  their  internal  surfaces. 
The  worm  is  best  cleaned  by  passing  hot  water  thro'  it 
repeatedly,  until  the  water  flows  out  quite  flavourless. 
It  conduces  much  to  the  good  quality  of  the  com- 
pound spirits,  when  the  ingredients  of  which  they  are 
composed,  are  infused  in  spirits  all  night,  before  dis- 
tillation. Let  all  these  be  bruised,  sliced,  or  other- 
wise separated  before  infusion. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  that  no  grease,  tallow, 
soap,  or  any  other  unctuous  matter  fall  into  the  tubs, 
pieces,  rundlets,  or  cans.  All  these  will  injure  the 
appearance  of  the  spirits,  causing  a  flatness  which 
prevents  the  rising  of  those  bells  or  globules,  which 
are  characteristic  of  strong  spirit. 

Above  all  things,  lighted  candles,  torches,  or  pa- 
pers, should  not  be  brought  near  any  vessel  contain- 


DISTILLATION.  ft 

ing  spirits.  The  flue,  or  chimney,  should  be  kept 
constantly  clean,  both  to  prevent  conflagration,  and 
to  preserve  the  draught  of  the  fire  clear. 

In  dulcifying,  or  sweetening  the  spirits,  weigh  the 
sugar  and  dissolve  it  in  one  or  more  cans  of  the  wa- 
ter, with  which  the  compound  is  to  be  made  up : 
bruise  the  sugar,  and  stir  it  well,  till  all  is  dissolved. 
Then  empty  it  into  the  cask,  containing  the  spirits  ; 
mixing  all  together,  by  di'awing  off"  several  cans  by 
the  cock,  and  emptying  them  into  the  casks  by  the 
bung-holes.  Now  rummage  all  well  together,  till 
they  are  perfectly  compounded. 

Spirits,  or  compounds,  that  are  strong,  require  no 
assistance  in  setting,  and  becoming  clear ;  but  those 
that  are  weak  must  be  refined  by  the  addition  of 
some  other  substance.  To  every  hogshead  of  Gene- 
va, or  other  spirituous  compound,  put  six  ounces  of 
powdered  alum,  previously  dissolved  in  tiiree  or  four 
gallons  of  the  compound  :  stir  all  well  together.  In 
the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  the  whole  will  be 
rendered  completely  clear. 

It  is  a  good  practice  to  leave  the  bung-holes  of 
casks  (containing  spirits  or  compounds  newly  made) 
open  for  several  days :  this  improves  their  flavour, 
and  renders  them  clear,  sooner  than  they  would  other- 
wise be.  It  is  an  error,  to  suppose  that  the  spirits 
will  be  injured,  or  weakened,  by  this  practice,  as  the 
quantity,  which,  by  any  possibility,  will  evaporate 
from  so  small  an  aperture,  is  comparatively  trifling 
with  that  of  the  whole  contents  of  the  cask. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  proved  that  table  salt, 
thrown  into  the  still,  in  the  proportion  of  six  ounces 
to  ten  gallons  of  any  liquid  to  be  distilled,  will  greatly 


$S^  DISTILLATION. 

improve  the  flavour,  taste,  and  strength  of  the  spirit. 
The  viscid  matter  will  be  fixed  by  the  salt,  whilst 
the  volatile  matter  ascends  in  a  state  of  great  purity. 
But  some  even  suppose,  that  the  quantity  of  alcohol, 
produced  by  the  addition  of  salt  is  greater  than  when 
distilled  without  it;  and  a  distiller  in  Copenhagen, 
some  time  since,  published  an  account,  that  having 
several  times  distilled  brandy  and  gin,  from  wheat 
steeped  in  salt  water,  he  constantly  obtained  nearly 
two  twenty-sevenths  more  of  spirits,  than  from  an 
equal  quantity  of  wheat  not  so  steeped. 

The  flavour  of  malt  spirits  is  said  to  be  highly  im- 
proved, by  putting  three  ounces  and  a  half  of  finely 
powdered  charcoal,  and  four  ounces  and  a  half  of 
ground  rice,  into  a  quart  of  spirits,  and  letting  it  stand 
fifteen  days,  frequently  stirring  it ;  then  let  the  liquor 
be  strained,  and  it  will  be  found  nearly  of  the  same 
flavour  as  brandy. 

A  great  desideratum  among  distillers,  in  this  coun- 
try, is  to  imitate  foreign  spirits,  such  as  brandy,  rum, 
Geneva,  &c.  to  a  tolerable  degree  of  perfection  ;  but 
notwithstanding  the  many  attempts  that  are  daily 
made  for  this  purpose,  the  success  in  general  has 
been  indifferent. 

The  general  method  of  distilUngbrantiiesin  France 
differs  in  nothing  from  that  practised  here  with  malt- 
wash  or  molasses ;  nor  are  the  French  distillers  in 
the  l€ast,  more  cleanly  in  their  operations.  Still, 
though  brandy  is  distilled  from  wine,  experience  tells 
us,  tliat  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  grapes  from 
which  the  wine  is  made.  Every  soil,  every  climate, 
every  kind  of  gra}>es,  varies  with  regard  to  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  the  spirit  distilled  from  them.     A 


DISTILLATION,  62^ 

large  quantity  of  brandy  is  distilled  in  France  during 
the  time  of  the  vintage ;  for  the  poor  grapes  that 
prove  unfit  for  wine,  are  usuall}^  first  gathered,  pres- 
sed, their  juice  fermented,  and  instantly  distilled. 
This  rids  them  of  their  poor  wines  at  once,  and 
leaves  their  casks  empty  for  the  reception  of  better. 
It  is  a  general  rule  with  them,  not  to  distil  wine  that 
will  fetch  any  price  as  ivine ;  for,  in  this  state,  the 
profits  obtained  are  much  greater,  than  when  the 
wine  is  reduced  to  brandies.     The  large  stock  of 
small  wines,  with  which  they  are  almost  overrun  in 
France,  sufficiently  accounts  for  their  making  such 
vast  quantities  of  brandy  in  that  country,  more  than 
in  others  which  lie  in  warmer  climates,  and  are  much 
better  adapted  to  the  production  of  grapes.     Nor  is 
this  the  only  source  of  their  brandies ;  all  the  wine 
that  turns  bad  is  condemned  to  the  still ;  and  also  all 
that  they  can  neither  export,  nor  consume  at  home. 
The  Arabian  physicians  used  brandy  in  the  com- 
position of  medicines,  but  Alexander  Tassoni  relates 
that  the  Modenese  were  the  first  in  Europe,  who,  on 
occasion  of  too  abundant  a  vintage,  made  and  sold 
brandy   in   considerable   quantities.      The   German 
miners  had  first  acquired  the  habit  of  drinking  it ; 
and  the  great  consumption  of  and  demand  for  this 
liquor,  soon  induced  the  Venetians  to  participate 
with  the  Modenese  in  this  new  branch  of  commerce. 
Brandy  did  not  come  into  general  use  till  towards  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and   even  then  it  was 
called  burnt  loine.     The  first  printed   book  which 
inakes  mention  of  brandy,  recommended  it  as  a  pre- 
servative against  most  diseases,  and  as  a  means  to 
prolong  youth  and  beauty  ! 


64  t)lSTlLLATtON. 

For  a  long  time  this  liquor  was  distilled  only  from 
spoilt  wine,  and  afterwards,  from  the  dregs  of  beer  and 
wine ;  and,  when  instead  of  these,  the  distillers  em- 
ployed rye,  wlieat,  and  barley,  it  was  considered  as 
a  wicked  and  unpardonable  misuse  of  corn :  it  was 
for  a  considerable  period  the  received  opinion  in 
France,  that  brandy  distilled  from  the  lees  of  wine  or 
the  husks  of  grapes,  was  injurious  to  the  health  of 
those  who  drank  of  it ;  in  consequence  of  which,  it 
was  forbidden  to  distil  brandy  from  such  ingredients, 
under  pain  of  a  heavy  fine,  and  the  destruction  of  the 
still,  &c.  The  fallacy  of  this  opinion,  however,  was 
exposed  by  an  order  of  council,  in  July,  1 784,  which 
gave  permission  to  make  brandy  both  from  the  lees 
of  wine  and  from  the  husks  of  grapes. 

The  French  brandies  are  acknowledged  to  be  the 
best  in  Europe,  those  of  Nantes  and  Poitou,  of  which 
the  qualities  are  pretty  similar,  are  the  most  esteem- 
ed, as  well  on  account  of  their  excellent  flavour,  as 
their  peculiar  fineness  and  strength  ;  which  latter  is 
such,  that  they  bear  the  head-proof  longer  than  an)' 
other  spirituous  liquor.  It  is  of  these  brandies, 
therefore,  that  the  greatest  quantity  is  exported. — 
The  brandies  of  Anjou,  Touraine,  Orleans,  &c.  al- 
though not  exactly  equal  in  quahty  to  the  brandies  of 
Nantes  and  Poitou,  are  excellent.  Nantes  alone,  an- 
nually ships  from  seven  to  eight  thousand  barrels  of 
brandy,  and  Bordeaux  nearly  double  that  quantity. 

The  mode  in  which  the  merchants  of  the  French 
ports,  purchase  their  brandies,  is  as  follows  :  They 
write  to  the  distillers  to  send  them  samples  of  cer- 
tain qualities  of  brandy,  (all  of  which  are  distinguish- 
ed by  numbers ;)  the  samples  are  accordingly  for- 


BRANDY.  65 

warded  lu  phials  ;  on  receiving  them,  the  merchant 
briskly  strikes  the  bottom  of  each  pliial  with  his  open 
hand,  which  causes  the  bubbles,  or  beads,  to  appear 
on  the  surface  of  the  liquor.  By  their  size,  and 
duration,  he  forms  his  judgment  of  the  respective 
strength  of  each  sample.  If  the  beads  be  small  and 
quickly  disappear,  the  brandy  is  weak;  and  vice 
versa. 

A  practice  has  prevailed  for  some  time,  among 
several  of  the  French  distillers  of  adulterating  their 
brandies,  to  make  them  bear  a  head,  by  mixing  with 
them  a  certain  quantity  of  strong  barley-sugar ;  but 
this  gives  the  liquor  such  a  degree  of  harshness,  as 
cannot  but  be  perceived,  on  tasting  it.  Genuine 
brandy  invariably  possesses  a  smooth  vinous  flavour, 
and  does  not  bite  the  tongue  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  adulterated  liquor. 


BRANDY. 


IMITATION    OF    COGNIAC    BRANDY. 

English  spirits,  with  proper  management,  are  con- 
vertible into  brandy  that  shall  hardly  be  distinguish- 
ed from  the  foreign,  in  many  respects,  provided  the 
operation  is  neatly  performed.  The  best,  and  indeed 
the  only  method  of  imitating  French  brandies  to  per- 
fection, is  by  an  essential  oil  of  wine  ;  this  being  the 
very  ingredient  which  gives  the  French  brandies 
their  flavour.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered, 
that  in  order  to  use  even  this  ingredient  to  advantage, 
a  pure  tasteless  spirit  must  first  be  produced  ;  for  it 

9 


()6  EllANDF. 

would  be  absurd  to  expect,  that  tliis  essential  ofl 
should  be  able  to  give  the  agreeable  iiavour  of  French 
brandy  to  our  malt  spirit,  already  loaded  with  its 
own  oil,  or  strongly  impregnated  with  alixivious  taste 
from  the  alkaline  salts  used  in  rectification. 

To  prepare  the  oil  of  wine,  dissolve  some  cakes  of 
dry  wine-lees  in  six  or  eight  times  their  weight  of 
water,  distil  the  liquor  by  a  slow  fire,  and  separate 
the  oil  by  a  separatory  glass,  reserving  for  the  nicest 
uses  that  which  comes  over  first,  the  succeeding  oil 
being  coarser  and  more  resinous.  This  oil  of  wine 
may  be  dissolved  in  alcohol ;  by  which  means  it  will, 
for  a  long  time,  be  fully  possessed  of  all  its  flavour,  but 
otherwise  it  will  soon  grow  rancid. 

The  essential  oil,  hoAvever,  must  be  drawn  from  the 
same  kind  of  lees  as  the  brandy,  to  be  imitated,  was 
])rocurcd  from  :  that  is,  in  order  to  imitate  cogniac 
brandy,  it  will  be  necessary  to  distil  the  essential  oil 
from  cogniac  lees  ;  and  the  same  for  any  other 
kind  of  brandy.  For  as  different  brandies  have  dif- 
ferent flaA  ours,  and  as  tliese  flavours  are  entirely 
owing  to  the  essential  oil  of  the  grape,  it  would  be 
preposterous  to  endeavour  to  imitate  the  flavour  of 
cogniac  brandy  with  an  essential  oil  procured  from 
the  lees  of  Bordeaux  wine.  After  the  flavour  of  the 
brandy  is  well  imitated  by  a  proper  dose  of  the  es- 
sential oil,  and  the  wliole  reduced  into  one  simple 
and  homogenous  fluid,  other  difliculties  still  remain : 
the  colour,  the  proof,  and  the  softness,  must  also  be 
regarded,  before  a  s])irit  that  perfectly  resembles 
brandy  can  be  procured.  With  regard  to  the  proof, 
it  may  be  easily  accomplished  by  using  a  spirit  lec- 
tified  above  proof  ;  this  after  being  intimately  com- 


BRANDY.  67 

bined  with  the  essential  oil  of  wine,  may  be  reduced 
to  a  proper  standard  by  distilled  water.     The  softness 
ma}',  in  a  great  measure,  be  obtained  by  distilling  and 
rectifying  the  spirit  over  a  gentle  fire,  what  is  wanting 
in  this  criterion,  when  the  spirit  is  first  made,  will  be 
supplied  by  time  :  for  it  must  be  remembered  that 
it  is  time  alone  that  gives  this  property  to  French 
brandies,  as  at  first  they  are  acrid  and  fiery.    Treacle 
or  burnt  sugar,  gives  the  spirit  a  fine  colour,  nearly 
resembling  that  of  French  brandy ;  but  as  its  colour 
is  deep,  a  large  quantity  must  be  used.     This  is  not, 
however,  attended  with  any  bad  consequences,  for 
notwithstanding  that  the   spirit  is  really  weakened 
b}'  this  addition,  yet  the  bubble-proof,  (the  general 
criterion  of  spirits,)  is  greatly  heightened  by  the  te- 
nacity imparted  to  the  liquor  by  the  treacle.     The 
spirit  acquires  from  this  mixture  a  sweetish  or  lus- 
cious taste,  which  renders  it  very  agreeable  to  some 
palates.     A  much  smaller  quantity  of  burnt  sugar, 
than  of  treacle,  Avill  be  sufficient  for  colouring  the 
same  quantity  of  spirits  :  the  taste  is  also  very  differ- 
ent ;  for  instead  of  the  sweetness  imparted  by  the 
treacle,  the  spirit  acquires  from  the  burnt  sugar  an 
agreeable  bitterness,  and  by  that  means,  recommends 
itself  to  many  who  dislike  a  luscious   spirit.     The 
burnt  spirit  is  prepared  by  dissolving  a  proper  quan- 
tity of  sugar  in  a  little  water,  and  scorching  it  over 
the  fire  till  it  acquires  a  black  colour. 

Observations.  The  spirit  distilled  from  molasses, 
or  treacle,  is  \ev\  pure.  It  is  made  from  common 
treacle  dissolved  in  water,  and  fermented  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  wash  of  the  common  malt  spirit.  But 
if  some  particular  art  is  not  used  in  distilling  this 


68  BRANDY. 

spirit,  it  will  not  prove  so  vinous  as  malt  spirit,  but 
more  flat  and  less  pungent,  (though  otherwise  much 
better  tasted,)  as  its  essential  oil  is  of  a  less  offensive 
flavour.  Therefore,  if  fresh  wine  lees,  abounding  in 
tartar,  are  well  fermented  in  molasses,  the  spirit  will 
acquire  a  greater  vinosity  and  briskness,  and  ap- 
proach much  nearer  to  the  nature  of  foreign  brandy. 
If  the  molasses  spirit  brought  to  the  common  proof- 
strength,  is  found  not  to  have  sufficient  vinosity,  it 
will  be  proper  to  add  some  sweet  spirits  of  nitre ;  and 
if  the  spirit  has  been  properly  distilled  by  a  gentle 
heat,  it  may  by  this  addition  only,  be  made  to  pass  with 
ordinary  judges,  as  French  brandy.  Great  quantities 
of  this  spirit  are  used  in  adulterating  foreign  brandy, 
rum,  and  arrack.  Much  of  it  is  also  used  alone,  in 
making  cherry-brandy  and  other  cordials  by  infusion ; 
in  all  which,  many,  and  perhaps  with  justice,  prefer 
it  to  foreign  brandies.  Molasses,  like  all  other  spi- 
rits, is  entirely  colourless  when  first  extracted ;  but 
distillers  always  give  it,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the 
colour  of  foreign  spirits. 

BRITISH  BRANDY. 

To  sixty  gallons  of  clean  rectified  spirits,  put  one 
pound  of  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  one  pound  of  cassia 
buds  ground,  one  pound  of  bitter  almond  meal,  and 
four  pounds  of  figs  chopped  fine,  (the  figs,  cassia  and 
almond  meal  to  be  mixed  together,  before  they  are 
put  to  the  spirits,)  two  ounces  of  sliced  orris  root, 
and  about  thirty  or  forty  prune  stones  pounded ;  agi- 
tate the  whole  well  together,  two  or  three  times  a 
day,  for  three  days  or  more;  let  them  settle,  then 


GIN.  69 


pour  in  one  gallon  of  the  best  wine  vinegar,  and  add 
to   every  four  gallons,  one  gallon  of  foreign  brandy. 


THE  MYSTERY  OF  TRADE. 


Judge  Wrighthouse  states  that  the  great  mystery 
of  trade  is,  in  a  considerable  degree,  in  the  frauds 
practised ;  and  gives  the  following  specimen  of  two 
traders,  who  for  a  term  of  twenty  years,  sold  nearly 
the  same  amount  of  goods,  one  made  use  of  every 
art  and  skill  that  man  was  capable  of,  and  accumulat- 
ed five  hundred  thousand  pounds;  the  other  sojd  at 
fair  and  honourable  advances,  and  accumulated  jive 
thousand  guineas. 

THE  GREAT    SOURCE  OF  WEALTH. 

Judge  Morewealth  informs  us,  that  a  country  tra- 
der sent  a  few  casks  of  native  spirits  to  a  city  trader 
and  ordered  a  quantity  of  foreign  spirits  bearing  the 
same  name  as  the  native ;  and  that,  the  native  spirits 
was  taken  and  placed  in  foreign  casks,  and  sent  to 
the  countr}^  trader,  and  charged  him  at  three  times 
the  price  of  native  spirits.  For  this  offence,  the 
judge  says,  this  famous  money-maker  never  was 
brought  to  any  trial,  but  the  trial  of  conscience  w^hich 
burnt  in  his  latter  days  like  the  burning  of  Mount 
Vesuvius. 


GIN. 

PROCESS  OF  PREPARING  GIN,  IN  HOLLAND. 

The  grist  is  composed   of  ten  quarters  of  malt, 
ground  considerably  finer  than  our  malt  distiller'* 


70  GIxN. 

barley  grist,  .and  three  quarters  of  rye  meal ;  or  more 
frequently  of  ten  quarters  of  rye,  and  three  quarters 
of  malt  meal.  The  ten  quarters  are  first  mashed 
with  the  least  quantity  of  cold  water  it  is  possible  to 
blend  it  with,  and  when  uniformly  incorporated,  as 
much  boiling  water  is  added  as  forms  it  into  a  thin 
batter ;  it  is  then  put  into  one,  two,  or  more  casks,  or 
g3'le  tuns,  with  a  much  less  quantity  of  yeast  than  is 
usually  employed  by  our  distillers.  Generally,  on 
the  third  day,  the  Dutch  distillers  add  the  malt  or 
rye  meal,  prepared  in  a  similar  manner,  but  not  be- 
fore it  comes  to  the  temperature  of  the  fermenting 
wash ;  at  the  same  time  adding  as  much  yeast  as  at 
first. 

The  principal  secret  is  the  management  of  the 
mashing  part  of  the  business,  in  first  thoroughly  mix- 
ing the  malt  with  the  cold  water,  and  in  subsequent, 
ly  adding  the  due  proportion  of  boiling  water,  that  it 
may  still  remain  sufficiently  diluted  after  the  addi- 
tion of  the  fine  meal ;  also  in  well  rousing  all  together 
in  the  back,  that  the  wash  may  be  diluted  enough  for 
distilling,  without  endangering  its  burning  to  the 
bottom  of  the  still.  Thus  they  commodiously  re- 
duce the  business  of  brewing,  and  fermenting,  to  one 
operation.  By  using  cold  water  uniforml>"  to  wet 
the  malt,  all  danger  of  clogging  is  necessarily  avoid- 
ed. B}'  diluting  the  wash  thin  enough  to  be  fermen- 
ted and  distilled  together,  (by  which  means  the  spirit 
of  tlie  bran,  and  husky  part,  as  well  as  of  the  floiu-  of 
the  grain,  are  completely  extracted,)  the  Dutch  dis- 
tillers obtain  more  spirit  from  their  grain  than  we  do, 
and  of  a  better  quality,  with  not  half  the  trouble  taken 
bv  our  distillers.     Their  stills  usually  contain  from 


GIN.  71 

three  to  five  hundred  gallons  each  ;  they  constantly 
draw  off  three  cans  of  phlegm,  after  the  runnings 
cease  to  burn  on  the  head  of  the  still,  when  distilling 
wash ;  and  five  cans  when  distilling  low  wines. — 
This  practice  we  are  unacquainted  with,  as  we  usual- 
ly draw  the  fire  as  soon  as  the  runnings  from  the  still 
burn  languidly  on  the  still-head.  This  and  the  great 
quantity  of  rye  the  Dutch  use,  renders  their  spirit 
so  much  more  acid ;  and  the  diluteness  of  their  wash 
is  a  very  good  reason  for  the  great  purity,  and  quan- 
tity, of  their  spirit. 

To  every  twenty  gallons  of  spirit,  about  the 
strength  of  proof-spirit,  they  add  three  pounds  of  juni- 
per-berries, with  two  ounces  of  oil  of  juniper,  and 
distil  by  a  slow  fire  :  this  produces  the  best  Rottei- 
dam  gin.  An  inferior  kind  is  made  with  a  less  pro- 
portion of  berries,  sweet-fennel  seeds,  and  strasburg- 
turpentine,  without  a  drop  of  juniper  oil.  This  com- 
pound, and  a  better  sort  (but  inferior  to  the  Rotter- 
dam gin,)  are  made  at  Weesoppe. 

Observations.  In  Consetf  s  travels  in  Sv/eden,  we 
are  informed  that  grain  is  not  the  only  ingredient 
used  in  that  country  for  the  distillation  of  spirits.  He 
says,  "  The  low  priced  brandies,  and  gin,  are  made 
from  rye,  and  ants,  a  species  of  insect  very  plentiful  in 
this  countr3\  Upon  inquiry,  I  find  that  these  ants  sup- 
pi}^  a  resin,  an  oil,  and  an  acid,  w  hich  have  been  deem-- 
ed  of  considerable  service  in  the  art  of  physic.  The 
ant,  used  upon  these  occasions,  is  a  remarkably  large 
black  insect,  commonly  found  in  small  round  hillocks, 
at  the  bottom  of  the  fir  tree.  It  is  less  to  be  won- 
dered, that  they  should  use  these  insects  in  their  dis- 
tilleries, than  that  they  should  eat  them,  and  consider 
them  as  highh^  palatable  and  pleasant." 


72  RUM. 

RUM. 

DISTILLATION    OF    RUM    IN    THE    WEST    INDIES. 

In  the  still  house,  as  well  as  in  the  boiling  house, 
the  greatest  cleanliness  is  necessary ;  the  vats,  (at 
the  beginning  of  the  harvest,)  ought  to  be  well  wash- 
ed out,  with  both  warm  and  cold  water,  to  divest 
them  of  any  filth  which  may  have  adhered  to  their 
bottoms  and  sides,  since  they  were  last  in  use. 

At  first,  a  greater  proportion  of  skimming  from  the 
sugar-pans  must  be  used,  than  will  afterwards  be  ne- 
cessary, as  the  distiller  has  no  good  lees,  and  very 
little  molasses  to  add  to  the  mass ;  besides,  the 
skimmings,  at  the  commencement  of  the  season, 
aie  not  so  rich  as  they  will  be  in  March,  April,  and 
May,  which  are  esteemed  the  best  yielding  months. 
The  following  proportions  will  succeed  well  in  the 
beginning  :  for  every  hundred  gallons  the  vat  con- 
tains, put  forty-five  gallons  of  skimmings,  and  five  of 
molasses,  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  When  there  are 
good  lees,  (or  returns,  as  they  are  commonly  called,) 
mix  equal  quantities  of  skimmings,  lees,  and  water, 
and  for  every  hundred  gallons,  add  ten  gallons  of 
molasses.  When  the  mill  is  going,  and  therefore, 
when  there  are  no  skimmings,  mix  equal  parts  of  lees, 
and  water,  and  for  every  hundred  gallons  add  twenty 
gallons  of  molasses.  From  liquor  set  in  these  pro- 
portions, the  distiller  may  expect  to  obtain  from  ten  to 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  proof  rum  and  other  products. — 
But  the  quantity  of  spirit  will  depend  greatly  on  the 
quality  of  the  ingredients,  and  in  some  measure  on 
the  weather;  therefore  an  intelligent  distiller  will 
vary  his  proportions  accordingly. 


Ruw.  73 

Rum  differs  from  what  we  simply  call  sugar  spirit, 
as  it  contains  more  of  the  natural  fla\^our,  or  essential 
oil,  of  the  sugar-cane ;  hence  it  is  generally  thought, 
that  the  rum  derives  its  flavour  from  the  cane  itself. 

When  a  sufficient  stock  of  materials  are  got  to- 
gether, the  West  India  distillers  add  water  to  them, 
and  ferment  them  in  the  common  method.  The  fer- 
mentation, however,  is  alw  ays  carried  on  very  slowly 
at  first,  because  at  the  beginning  of  the  season  for 
making  rum  in  the  islands,  the  distillers  want  yeast 
to  make  it  work  ;  but  after  this,  they  by  degrees  pro- 
cure a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  ferment,  which  arises 
up  as  a  head  to  the  liquor  in  the  operation ;  and  thus 
they  are  able  afterwards  to  ferment,  and  make  their 
rum  with  a  great  deal  of  expedition,  and  in  very 
large  quantities. 

When  the  wash  is  fully  fermented,  the  distillation 
is  carried  on  in  the  common  way,  and  the  spirit  is 
made  up  proof,  though  sometimes  it  is  brought  to  a 
much  greater  degree  of  strength,  nearly  approaching 
to  that  of  alcohol.  It  is  then  called  double  distilled 
rum. 

Observations.  It  would  be  easy  to  bring  the  spirit 
to  a  much  greater  degree  of  strength  than  we  usually 
find  it,  if  it  did  not  bring  over  in  the  distillation  so 
large  a  quantity  of  a  gross  oily  matter,  which  is  often 
so  disagreeable,  that  the  rum  must  be  suffered  to  lie 
by  a  long  time,  to  become  mellow,  before  it  can  be 
used. 

The  best  state  to  keep  rum,  both  for  exportation 
and  other  uses,  is  doubtless  in  that  of  alcohol,  or  ar- 
dent spirits.  In  this  manner,  it  would  be  contained 
in  half  the  bulk  it  usually  is,  and  might  be  let  down 

10 


74  WHISKEY. 

to  the  common  proof  strength  with  water,  when  ne- 
cessary. 

What  is  termed  sugar  spirit,  is  extracted  from  the 
washings,  skimmings,  dross,  and  waste  of  the  boiling 
house.  These  are  to  be  diluted  with  water,  ferment- 
ed in  the  same  manner  as  molasses  or  wash,  and  then 
distilled  in  the  common  method.  If  the  operation  be 
carefully  performed,  and  the  spirit  well  rectified,  it 
may  be  mixed  with  brandies,  in  large  pro]:ortion,  to 
great  advantage ;  for  this  spirit  will  be  found  super- 
ior to  that  extracted  from  treacle,  and  consequently 
more  proper  for  these  uses.  In  Barbadoes,  a  very 
good  spirit  of  this  kind  is  prepared  from  the  cane 
juice,  called  cane  spirit,  resembling  very  pure  rum. 

IMITATION  OF  JAMAICA  RUM. 

To  imitate  Jamaica  rum,  it  is  necessary  to  procure 
some  of  the  tops,  or  other  parts  of  the  sugar  canes, 
and  to  put  them  in  a  still,  in  the  proportion  of  a  pound 
weight  to  two  gallons  of  pure  flavourless  spirit,  and 
one  gallon  of  pure  water.  The  distillation  may  be 
carried  on  by  a  brisk  heat,  provided  there  is  a  quan- 
tity of  common  salt,  (in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce 
to  each  gallon  of  liquid  in  the  still,)  to  prevent  the 
mucilaginous  matter  from  arising  with  the  spirit. 

The  product  w  hen  rectified  and  coloured  by  burnt 
sugar,  will  possess  every  character  of  excellent  rum. 


WHISKEY. 

SPIRITS  DISTILLED  FROM  CARROTS. 

in  France,  spirits  have  been  largely  distdled  from 


WHISKEY.  /3 

the  fermented  juice  of  the  potatoe,  and  potatoe  apple, 
and  in  England  from  carrots. 

Of  the  experiments  with  the  latter  vegetable  sub- 
stance, Dr.  Hunter  of  York,  who  performed  them 
has  given  us  the  following  interesting  account. — 

"  I  took  one  ton  and  eight  stone  of  carrots,  which, 
after  being  exposed  a  few  days  to  dry,  weighed  one 
hundred  and  sixty  stone.     After  being  washed,  top- 
ped, and  tailed,  they  lost  in  weight  eleven  stone. — 
The  whole  being  cut,  I  put  one-fRird  of  the  quantity 
into  a  copper,  with  twenty  four  gallons  of  water,  and 
after  covering  them  up  close,  the  fire  was  lighted  un- 
derneath, v»hich  m  three  hours  reduced  the  whole 
into  a  pulp.     The  other  two-thirds  was  treated  in  the 
same  manner,  and  as  the  pulp  was  taken  from  the 
copper,  it  was  carried  to  the  press,  where  the  juice 
was  extracted  with  great  facility.    The  liquor  obtain- 
ed amounted  to  two  hundred  gallons,  and  was  of  a 
sweet  rich  taste,  resembling  wort.     It  was  then  put 
into  the  copper  with  one  pound  of  hops.    It  was  suf- 
fered to  boil  about  five  hours,  when  it  was  put  into 
the   cooler.     Here  it  remained  till  the  heat  came 
down  to  66  degrees.     From  the  cooler  it  was  dis- 
charged into  the  vat,  where  six  quarts  of  yeast  were 
put  to  it,  in  the  usual  manner.     It  continued  to  work 
forty  eight  hours,  during  which  time  the  heat  gradu- 
ally decreased,  contrary  to  what  is  observed  in  other 
liquors  during  fermentation.     At  this  time  it  was  at 
58°,  when  the  yeast  began  to  fall.     I  then  heated 
twelve  gallons  of  unfermented  juice,  and  putting  it 
to  the  liquor,  the  heat  was  raised  to  66" ;  it  worked 
afresh  for  twenty  four  hours  longer,  the  liquor  gradu- 
ally lowering,  as  before,  from  66°  to  58°.     The  yeast 


76  WHISKEY. 

now  beginniiiiT  to  fall,  the  whole  was  turned  into  half- 
hogsheads,  where  it  continued  to  work  from  (he  bung. 
During  the  progress  of  the  fermentation,  the  air  in 
the  brewhouse  was  46°  and  44".  As  the  liquor  in  the 
vat  seemed  to  lose  heat  hourly,  instead  of  gaining  it, 
I  thought  proper  to  keep  a  fire  in  the  place,  during 
the  whole  time  of  the  fermentation.  After  standing 
three  days  in  the  casks,  the  liquor  was  thrown  into 
the  still,  and  fifty  gallons  drawn  off.  This  was  rec- 
tified the  next  da}',  without  any  additional  substance, 
and  twelve  gallons  of  spirit  were  obtained." 

Observations.  "  The  refuse  of  the  carrots  weigh- 
ed forty  eight  stone,  which  added  to  the  tops  and 
tails  made  provision  for  the  hogs.  To  this  should 
be  added  the  wash  from  the  still,  which  measured 
about  1 14  gallons.  In  this  instance,  the  refuse  of  an 
acre  of  carrots,  greatly  exceeds  that  of  an  acre  of 
barley,  Avhich  is  a  valuable  consideration  where  hogs 
are  kept.  By  my  experiment,  an  acre  of  carrots, 
(20  tons)  will  produce  240  gallons  of  spirit.  This  is 
considerably  more  than  what  can  be  obtained  from 
five  quarters  of  barley,  which  I  consider  as  an  equal 
produce.  I  estimate  the  cultivation  of  an  acre  of 
carrots  at  S45 ;  in  which  sum  I  include  rent,  plough- 
ing, weeding,  and  all  expenses :  and  as  far  as  I  am 
able  to  guess,  the  expense  of  fermentation  and  distil- 
lation will  amount  to  about  S67  more.  So  that  esti- 
mating the  spirit  at  seventy  seven  cents  per  gallon, 
the  profit  will  be  $72,80  per  acre,  to  be  dividod  be- 
tween the  grower  and  manufacturer,  exclusive  of 
what  is  produced  by  the  refuse,  which,  in  large  dis- 
tilleries, would  make  a  considerable  part  cf  the 
profit.^' 


CORDIAL.  77 

CORDIALS. 

USi^UEBAUGH. 

Usquebaugh  is  a  very  celebrated  cordial.  There 
are  different  ways  of  making  it,  but  the  following  is 
the  most  preferable. 

Take  of  nutmegs,  cloves,  and  cinnamon,  each  two 
ounce'fe  ;  of  the  seeds  of  anise,  carraway,  and  corian- 
der, each  four  ounces ;  liquorice  root,  sliced,  half  a 
pound ;  bruise  the  seeds  and  spices,  and  put  them 
together  with  the  liquorice  into  the  still,  with  eleven 
gallons  of  proof  spirits,  and  two  gallons  of  water ; 
distil  with  a  pretty  brisk  fire.  As  soon  as  the  still 
bedns  to  work,  fasten  to  the  nosel  of  the  worm  two 
ounces  of  English  saffron,  tied  up  in  a  cloth,  that  the 
liquor  may  run  through  it,  and  extract  all  its  tincture. 
When  the  operation  is  finished,  sweeten  with  fine 
sugar. 

Observations.  This  cordial  may  be  much  improv- 
ed by  the  following  additions.  Digest  four  pounds 
of  stoned  raisins,  three  pounds  of  dates,  and  two 
pounds  of  sliced  liquorice  root,  in  two  gallons  of  wa- 
ter, for  twelve  hours.  When  the  liquor  is  strained 
off,  and  has  deposited  all  sediment,  decant  it  gently 
into  the  vessel  containing  the  usquebaugh. 

LAVENDER  SPIRIT. 

Take  fourteen  pounds  of  lavender  flowers,  ten  gal- 
lons and  a  half  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine,  and  one 
gallon  of  water ;  draw  off  ten  gallons  by  a  gentle  fire; 
or,  which  is  much  better,  by  a_sand-bath  heat. 


78  CORDIAL. 

Observations.  To  convert  this  into  the  red  lif}uid 
known  by  the  name  of  compound  lavender  spirit : — 
Take  of  lavender  spirit  above  described,  two  gallons ; 
of  Hungary  water,  one  gallon ;  cinnamon,  and  nut- 
megs, of  each  three  ounces  ;  and  of  red  saunders,  one 
ounce ;  digest  the  w  hole  for  three  days  in  a  gentle 
heat,  and  then  filter  it  for  use.  Some  add  saffron, 
musk,  and  ambergris,  of  each  half  a  scruple ;  but 
those  are  now  generally  omitted.  * 


HUNGARY  WATER. 

Take  of  the  flowery  top,  with  the  leaves  and  flow^- 
ers  of  rosemary,  fourteen  pounds;  rectified  spirit, 
eleven  gallons  and  a  half ;  water,  one  gallon  ;  distil 
off  ten  gallons  by  a  moderate  fire. 

Observations.  This  is  called  Hungary  water,  from 
its  being  first  made  for  a  princess  of  that  kingdom. 
Some  add  lavendar  flowers,  and  others  florentine  or- 
ris root ;  but  what  is  most  esteemed,  is  made  with 
rosemary  only. 


CINNAMON  CORDIAL. 

Take  eight  ])ounds  of  fine  cinnamon  bruised,  sev- 
enteen gallons  of  clear  rectified  spii-it,  aiiil  two  gallons 
of  water;  put  them  into  the  still,  and  digest  tlieni 
twenty  four  hours  by  a  gentle  heat ;  after  which, 
draw  off  sixteen  gallons  by  a  pretty  strong  heat. 

Observation.  The  projiortion  of  ingredients  and 
products  in  this,  and  the  foregoing  operations,  may 
be  reduced  to  any  desired  point. 


COCHINEAL.  79 

COCCUS  CACTI.— COCHINEAL. 


Cochineal  is  a  small,  irregular  roundish  body,  of  a 
dark  red  colour  on  the  outside,  and  a  deep  bright  red 
within.  It  consists  of  an  insect  which  derives  its 
nourishment  from  the  leaves  of  the  cactus  cochinilli- 
fer,  or,  as  it  is  differently  called,  nopal,  or  nopelleca. 
This  plant  is  found  most  abundantly  in  Mexico,  and 
other  parts  of  ^ew  Spain ;  and  from  its  leaves  cochi- 
neal insects  are  collected,  and  killed  either  by  being 
immersed  in  hot  water,  or  put  into  an  oven  moderate- 
ly heated,  or  more  advantageously,  by  being  exposed 
to  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun.  These  singular  in- 
sects, in  their  successive  generations,  are  taken  by 
the  Mexicans  three  times  in  a  year,  carefully  pre- 
serving over  the  winter,  in  their  houses,  such  as  may 
be  necessary  for  breeders,  while  attached  to  the  suc- 
culent leaves  of  the  plant.  No  less  than  800,000 
pounds,  each  pound  containing  at  least  70,000  insects, 
are  imported  annually  into  Europe,  as  a  highly  valu- 
ble  colouring  drug.  They  are  principally  consumed 
by  the  scarlet  dyers,  and  for  the  purpose  of  making 
carmine.  The  best  sort  has  been  sold  for  one  guin- 
ea the  pound.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  dried  insect 
may  be  kept  unimpaired  for  an  indefinite  length  of 
time. 

The  true  cochineal  has  been  found  in  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Mr.  K.  Peal,  of  Philadelphia,  asserts  that  he 
has  discovered  it  upon  the  island  of  Little  St.  Simons, 
on  the  coast  of  Georgia. 

It  is  extremely  desireable  that  the  insect,  and  the 
cactus  cochenillifer  plant  on  which  it  breeds,  should 


80  VINEGAR. 

be  cultivated  in  the  southern  states.  The  planter 
might  find  it  a  valuable  source  of  revenue,  when, 
from  vicissitudes  in  the  season,  their  crops  of  rice  or 
cotton  should  fail. 

Cochineal  is  not  employed  in  medicine,  except  for 
the  purpose  of  imparting  a  beautiftd  red  colour  to 
some  tinctures.  Their  colour  is  easily  extracted, 
both  by  alcohol  and  water. 

"  Cochineal  flourishes  on  the  native  nopal,  or  prick- 
ly pear  of  South  Carolina.  The  insect  thrives  well, 
and  increases  and  spreads  on  every  leaf  rapidly. 

"  The  breeding  of  cochineal  is,  however,  attended 
with  precarious  circumstances,  the  insect  is  exposed 
to  a  variety  of  dangers  from  the  violence  of  the  winds, 
the  rains,  fogs,  frosts,  and  other  causes,  and  also  from 
the  depredations  of  birds,  who  are  very  fond  of  these 
insects." 


VINEGAR. 


ACETOUS  FERMENTATION. 


The  acetous  fermentation  is  that  which  takes  place 
in  vegetable  infusions  containing  saccharine  or  mu- 
cilaginous matter  at  an  elevated  temperature.  It  lias 
been  shown  before,  that  the  vinous  fermentation 
takes  place  at  different  temperatures,  between  50° 
and  70°  Farenheit ;  but,  if  saccharine  or  mucihigin- 
ous  liquids  are  elevated  to  higher  temperatures,  a 
change  takes  place  in  the  whole  mass  -,  and  instead 
of  the  formation  of  alcohol,  the  generation  of  acetic 
acid,  or  vinegar  is  induced.  This  fermentation  or 
acetification  is,  no  doubt,  tiie  consequence  of  a  chem- 


VINEGAR.  81 

ical  change  which  takes  place  in  the  mucilaginous  or 
saccharine  principle  of  the  vegetable  substance ;  but 
upon  what  play  of  affinities  it  depends,  chemists  have 
not  hitherto  determined. 

A  notable  difference  exists  between  the  vinegars 
made  from  different  substances.  The  specific  gravity 
of  good  vrine  vinegar  is  about  1,025,  water  being 
ICOO.  ^Vine  vinegar  not  onl}^  contains  acetous  acid, 
but  also  sulphate  of  potass,  and  lime ;  (probably  ac- 
cidental,) extractive  matter,  and  the  tartaric,  citric, 
malic,  and  oxalic  acids.  The  three  latter,  however, 
are  often  wanting  e^  en  in  good  vinegar.  The  best 
wines,  as  those  of  Languedoc,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Italj^,  yield  the  strongest  vinegar,  although  too  dear 
for  common  use. 

Various  experiments  have  been  tried  on  the  aceti- 
fication  of  certain  substances.  We  shall  here  notice 
some  performed  by  M.  Cadet,  and  other  French 
chemists.  t 

FLOUR  AND  WATER  V.  ITU  YEAST. 

Seven  ounces  of  flour  boiled  in  fif^  six  ounces  of 
water,  assisted  by  half  an  ounce  of  ferment,  and  kept 
working  for  twenty  four  hours,  produced  as  much 
vinegar  as  saturated  nine  drams  of  potass. 

Observations.  The  same  quantit}'  of  starch,  boil- 
ed with  a  similar  proportion  of  v/ater  and  ferment, 
kept  working  for  thirty  five  days,  produced  as  much 
vinegar  as  saturated  eleven  drams  of  potass.  Al- 
though sugar,  assisted  by  yeast,  passes  from  the  al- 
coholic, to  acetous  fermentation,  yet  the  mixture  of 
alcohol  with  water  does  not  ferment,  unless  extract- 
ive matter,  mucilage,  or  boiled  starch  is  added,  and 
11 


82  VINEGAR. 

the  alcohol  is  not  too  predominant  in  the  mixture. 
A  solution  of  sugar  candy  did  not  ferment  until  one 
fifteenth  of  its  weight  of  yeast  A\as  added,  and  then 
it  fermented  readily  in  the  temperature  of  68°  Faren- 
heit.  Treacle!  ferments  of  itseif,  p*ovided  it  is  dilut- 
ed in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  Solution  of  gum 
began  to  become  acid  very  quickly,  and  its  ferment- 
ation was  promoted  b}'  yeast.  Extractive  matter 
does  not  ferment,  but  becomes  putrid.  Yeast  pro- 
duces no  eflect  on  extract  of  litiuorice,  which  seems 
to  contain  a  saccharine  principle.  Starch  does  not 
ferment  by  itself;  flour  ferments  with  difficulty,  and 
after  three  cr  four  days  the  liquid  begins  to  putrefy. 

SUGAR  AND  WATER  WITH  YEAST. 

Ten  ovmces  of  sugar,  seventy  ounces  of  water,  and 
sixteen  drams  of  ferment,  began  to  work  the  next 
day,  the  fermentation  lasted  twelve  days.  It  requir- 
ed a  dram  and  a  half  of  potass  to  saturate  four  ounces 
of  this  vinegar.  Eight  ounces  of  the  vinegar  yielded 
two  drams  of  crystalized  sugar. 

SUGAR,  ALCOHOL  AND  WATER,  WITH  YEAST. 

Five  ounces  of  sugar,  five  ounces  of  alcohol,  and 
seventy  two  ounces  of  water,  with  six  drams  of  yeast, 
began  to  work  the  same  day ;  the  fermentation  last- 
ed twelve  days.  It  required  one  dram  of  potass  to 
saturate  four  ounces  of  this  vinegar.  Eight  ounces 
of  the  vinegar  3  ielded  half  a  dram  of  sugar ;  it  tasted 
very  weak,  and  yielded  alcohol  on  distillation,  with 
some  traces  of  acetous  ether. 

EXCESS  OF  SUGAR  AND  WATER. 

Fifteen  ounces  of  sugar,  seventy  ounces  of  wateii 


VINEGAR.  83 

and  six  drams  of  yeast,  began  to  work  the  same  day ; 
the  fermentation  lasted  twenty  three  days.  It  re^ 
quired  tAvo  drams  of  potass  to  saturate  four  ounces 
of  this  vinegar.  Eight  ounces  of  it  3  ielded  nearly 
an  ounce  of  sugar. 

SUGAR  AND  WATER  WITH  ALCOHOL. 

IN    SMALL    PROPORTION. 

Ten  ounces  of  sugar,  five  ounces  of  alcohol,  seven- 
ty two  ounces  of  water,  and  six  drams  of  ferment, 
began  to  work  the  second  day,  and  continued  to  do 
so  for  eight  days.  Carbonic  acid  gas  was  emit- 
ted, but  the  ii<{uor  did  not  redden  syrup  of  violets. 
By  distillation  each  quart  of  vinegar  yielded  ten 
drams  of  weak  alcohol. 

SUGAR,  GUM,  AND  WATER,  WITH  YEAST. 

Eight  ounces  of  sugar,  two  ounces  of  gum,  seventy 
two  ounces  of  water,  and  six  drams  of  ferment,  be- 
gan to  work  the  first  day ;  the  fermentation  lasted 
fifteen  days.  It  required  two  drams  of  potass  to  sat- 
urate four  ounces  of  this  vinegar.  The  vinegar  was 
very  strong,  and  alcohol  being  poured  in,  nearly  an 
ounce  of  mucilage  was  precipitated  in  a  month  after- 
wards. 

SUGAR   AND  WATER,  WITH  EXCESS  OF  YEAST. 

Fifteen  ounces  of  sugar,  sevent3'-two  ounces  of  wa- 
ter, and  ten  drams  of  yeast,  began  to  work  the  first 
day ;  the  fermentation  lasted  ten  days.  It  required 
two  drams  of  potass  to  saturate  four  ounces  of  this 
vinegar.  The  same  quantity  yielded  two  drams  of 
sugar  which  had  not  fermented. 


84  VINEGAR. 

Observations.  From  these  experiments  it  may  be 
concluded:  1st.  That  the  alcohol  added  to  the  fer- 
menting liquors  (although  it  may  be  partly  changed 
into  vinegar,)  cannot  be  substituted  for  sugar.  2d. 
That  when  the  sugar  is  in  too  great  quantity,  part  of 
it  does  not  ferment.  3d.  That  mucilage  hastens  the 
fermentation,  but,  like  sugar,  the  superabundant  por- 
tion remains  unaltered.  And  4th.  That  too  large  a 
proportion  of  alcohol  prevents  fermentation  alto- 
gether. 

M.  Cadet  tried  several  experiments,  to  determine 
the  best  proportions  of  ingredients,  to  form  vinegar. 
He  foimd  the  following  to  be  those  best  adapted  to 
this  purpose. 

APPROVED  PROPORTIONS  OF  INGREDIENTS, 

FOR    THE    BEST    VIHEClAR. 

Eight  ounces  of  sugar,  fifty  seven  ounces  of  water, 
and  four  drams  of  yeast,  began  to  work  the  first  day ; 
the  fermentation  lasted  twelve  days.  It  required 
three  drams  of  potass  to  saturate  four  ounces  of  the 
vinegar  produced.  This  vinegar  was  very  strong, 
agreeably  tasted,  and  did  not  contain  or  deposit  any 
sugar. 

DIMINUTION  OF  THE  ABOVE   qUANTlTY  OF  WATER. 

By  diminishing  the  quantity  of  water,  some  of  the 
su""ar  remains  undeconiposed.  Seven  ounces  and 
one  dram  of  sugar,  twenty  eight  ounces  of  water,  and 
four  drams  of  yeast,  did  not  begin  to  work  till  two 
days  afterwards  ;  the  fermentation  lasted  twenty  one 
days,  being  very  slow.  It  recpiired  only  tv.o  di-ams 
of  potass  to  saturate    four  ounces  of    tliis  vinegar. 


VINEGAR.  j|5 

The  liquor  was  still  very  saccharine,  and  tasted  like 
simple  oxymel. 

APPROVED  PROPORTIONS  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  ALCOHOL 
INTO  VINEGAR. 

The  following  proportions  appeared  most  likely 
to  cause  alcohol  to  be  totally  converted  into  vinegar. 
Three  ounces  and  four  drams  of  sugar,  the  same 
quantity  of  alcohol,  twenty  eight  ounces  of  water, 
and  four  drams  of  ferment,  began  to  work  two  days 
afterwards ;  the  fermentation  lasted  seventeen  days. 
It  required  two  drams  of  potass  to  saturate  four 
ounces  of  this  vinegar ;  the  liquor  had  a  vinous  smell, 
and  half  the  alcohol  employed  was  separated  by  dis- 
tillation. 

Observations.  Sugar,  therefore,  is  the  essential 
ingredient  in  the  formation  of  vinegar ;  mucilage  is 
partly  changed  into  vinegar,  and  accelerates  the  fer- 
mentation, but  disposes  the  liquor  to  putrefaction, 
unless  prevented  by  the  addition  of  alcohol.  This 
last  is  imperfectly  changed  into  vinegar ;  but  it  ren- 
ders the  vinegar  sharp,  makes  it  keep  well,  and 
when  used  for  infusing  aromatic  plants,  takes  up  the 
resinous  odoriferous  particles. 

Mr.  Herbert  of  Berlin,  is  said  to  have  made  vine- 
gar, in  two  months,  from  four  parts  of  rectified  malt 
spirits,  and  seventy  two  of  water ;  but  this  experi- 
ment did  not  succeed  in  France.  The  vinegar  com- 
monly sold,  contains  alcohol,  and  the  first  portion 
that  comes  over  is  alcoholic.  M.  LoAvitz  has  sepa- 
rated '  alcohol  from  vinegar  by  freezing,  and  subse- 
quent distillation  from  powdered  charcoal.  The 
quantity  of  potass  required  to  saturate  a  given  quan- 


86  VINEGAR. 

tity  of  vinegar,  indicates  the  quantity  of  acid  which 
it  contains,  and  tlie  quantity  of  acid  appears  to  de- 
pend upon  tlie  quantity  of  sugar  originally  contained 
in  the  fermented  mass.  Hence  taking  the  first  ex- 
periment of  eight  ounces  of  sugar  for  the  basis  of 
the  calculation,  it  appears  that  the  sugar  employed 
in  the  formation  of  acetous  acid,  is  to  the  potass  ne- 
cessary to  saturate  it,  as  1.2668  to  1.0000;  from 
whence  there  may  be  calculated  the  quantity  of  su- 
gar that  ought  to  be  added  to  any  weak  vinegar,  in 
order  to  bring  it  to  any  required  strength.  The  same 
experiment  also  shows  that  one  Jiundred  parts  of 
good  vinegar  are  formed  from  12.410  of  sugar,  0.799 
ol  }  east,  and  86.79 1  of  water,  whence  the  proportion 
of  yeast  to  be  added  may  be  deduced ;  and  on  this 
foundation  an  estimate  may  be  made  of  the  quantity 
of  saccharine  matter  contained  in  a  vegetable,  when 
it  is  so  enveloped  in  other  principles,  as  not  to  be 
separable  by  the  ordinary  methods.  This  may  be 
performed  by  making  a  decoction  of  the  plant,  fer- 
menting the  decoction,  and  saturating  the  acid 
with  potass.  If  the  decoction  reddens  litmus ;  the 
malic,  citric,  oxalic,  or  tartarous  acid,  contained  in  jt, 
must  be  saturated  with  lime,  and  the  liquor  filtered 
before  fermentation. 

Vinegar  may  be  made  in  all  places  by  properly 
adjusting  the  quantities  of  saccharine  matter,  water, 
and  ferment. 

Excellent  vinegar  has  been  made  from  cabbage, 
with  the  addition  of  some  brandy  and  sugar.  Alco- 
hol may  be  employed  in  lieu  of  some  of  the  sugar, 
provided  it  docs  not  exceed  the  fourth  part  of  this 
substance.     The  quantity  of  sugar  that  the  substance 


VINEGAR.  87 

contains  ought  to  be  previously  ascertained,  by  fer- 
menting eigiit  ounces  of  it  with  fiity  six  ounces  of 
water,  and  half  an  ounce  of  yeast  or  baker's  leaven, 
which  latter  is  preferable,  because  yeast  sometimes 
gives  a  disagreeable  taste  to  the  vinegar.  The  mix- 
ture is  to  be  put  into  a  vessel,  one  half  of  which  is  to 
be  left  empty,  and  kept  in  a  temperature  of  68"  Far- 
enheit,  for  twenty  five  or  thirty  days,  being  stirred 
morning  and  evening.  The  strength  of  tlie  vinegar, 
now  obtained,  being  ascertained  by  adding  potass,  it 
will  be  easy  to  calculate  how  much  saccharine  mat- 
ter must  be  added,  to  form  vinegar  of  the  required 
strength.  In  large  manufactories  it  is  best  to  employ 
small  barrels,  placed  as  in  saltpetre  houses,  in  order 
that  their  contents  may  be  easily  drawn  off,  and  no 
brass  cocks  or  pewter  syphons  should  be  used. 
The  barrels  should  all  be  placed  in  a  stove,  so  that 
all  ma}  receive  an  equal  degree  of  heat,  regulated  by 
thermometers  placed  in  different  parts  of  the  build- 
ing. 

COMMON  METHOD  OF  MAKING  VINEGAR. 

To  every  gallon  of  water  put  a  pound  of  coarse 
Lisbon  sugar ;  let  the  mixture  be  boiled,  and  skim- 
med as  long  as  any  scum  arises.  Then  let  it  be 
poured  into  proper  vessels ;  and  when  it  is  as  cool 
as  beer  when  worked,  let  a  warm  toast  rubbed  over 
with  yeast  be  put  to  it.  Let  it  work  about  twenty 
four  hours,  and  then  put  it  into  an  iron  hooped  cask, 
fixed  either  near  a  constant  fire,  or  where  the  sum- 
mer sun  shines  the  greater  part  of  the  day  ;  in  this 
situation  it  should  not  be  closely  stopped  up,  but  a 
tile,  or  something  similar,  should  be  laid  on  the  bung 


98  VINEGAR. 

hole  to  keep  out  the  dust  and  insects.  At  the  end 
of  cibout  three  months,  (sometliiiig  less,)  it  will  be 
clear,  and  fit  for  use,  and  may  be  bottled  off.  The 
longer  it  is  kept,  after  it  is  bottled,  the  better  it  will 
be.  If  the  vessel  containing  the  liquor  is  to  be  ex- 
posed to  the  sun's  heat,  the  best  time  to  commence 
making  it,  is  the  month  of  April. 


GOOSEBERRY    VINEGAR. 

Bruise  the  gooseberries  w^hen  ripe,  and  to  every 
quart  put  three  quarts  of  water  ;  stir  them  well  to- 
gether, and  let  the  w  hole  stand  for  tw  enty  four  hours, 
then  strain  it  through  a  canvas  bag. 

To  every  gallon  of  liquor,  add  one  pound  of  brown 
sugar,  and  stir  them  well  together  before  they  are 
put  into  the  cask.  Proceed  in  all  other  respects  as 
before.  This  vinegar  possesses  a  pleasant  taste  and 
smell ;  but  raspberry  vinegar,  which  may  be  made 
on  the  same  plan,  is  far  superior  in  these  respects. 
The  raspberries  are  not  required  to  be  of  the  best 
sort,  still,  they  should  be  ripe,  and  well  flavoured. 

PRIMROSE    VINEGAR. 

To  fifteen  (quarts  of  water  put  six  pounds  of  broM  n 
sugar;  let  it  boil  ten  minutes,  and  takeoff  the  scum; 
pour  on  it  half  a  peck  of  primroses ;  before  it  is  quite 
cold,  put  in  a  little  fresh  yeast,  and  let  it  work  in  a 
warm  place  all  night ;  put  it  in  a  barrel  in  the  kitch- 
en, and  when  done  \\ orking,  close  the  barrel,  still 
keeping  it  in  a  warm  place. 


VINEGAR.  89 

VINEGAR  FROM  THE  REFUSE  OF  BEE-HIVES. 

When  honey  is  extracted  from  the  combs,  by 
means  of  pressure,  take  the  whole  mass,  break  and 
separate  it,  and  into  each  tub  or  vessel,  put  one  part 
of  combs,  and  two  of  water ;  place  them  in  the  sun, 
or  in  a  warm  place,  and  cover  them  with  cloths.  Fer- 
mentation takes  place  in  a  few  days,  and  continues 
from  eight  to  twelve  days,  according  to  the  higher  or 
lower  temperature  of  the  situation  in  which  the  op- 
eration is  carried  on.  During  the  fermentation,  stir 
the  matter  from  time  to  time,  and  press  it  down  with 
the  hands,  that  it  may  be  perfectly  soaked.  When 
the  fermentation  is  over,  put  the  matter  to  drain  up- 
on sieves  or  strainers.  At  the  bottom  of  the  vessels 
will  be  found  a  yellow  liquor,  which  must  be  thrown 
away,  because  it  would  soon  contract  a  disagreeable 
smell,  which  it  would  communicate  to  the  vinegar. 
Then  wash  the  tubs,  put  into  them  the  water,  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  matter ;  it  immediately  begins 
to  turn  sour,  when  the  tubs  must  be  again  covered 
with  cloths,  and  kept  moderatel}  warm.  A  pellicle, 
or  skin,  is  formed  on  the  surface,  beneath  which  the 
vinegar  acquires  strength ;  in  a  month's  time  it  be- 
gins to  be  sharp ;  it  must  be  left  standing  a  little 
longer,  and  then  put  into  a  cask,  of  which  the  bung 
hole  is  left  open.  It  may  then  be  used  like  any  other 
vinegar. 

Observations.  To  strengthen  vinegar,  suffer  it  to 
be  repeatedly  frozen,  and  separate  the  upper  cake 
of  ice,  or  water,  from  it. 

All  vinegars  owe  their  principal  strength  to  the 
acetic  acid  they  contain;  but  the  vinegar  of  wine 
contains  also  tartar,  a  small  portion  of  the  malic  acid, 

12 


90  BREAD. 

alcohol,  and  colouring  matter ;  that  of  cider  and  per- 
ry contains  merely  malic  acid,  little  or  no  alcohol, 
and  a  yellowish  colouring  matter. 


BREAD. 


PANARY  FERMENTATION. 

This  species  of  fermentation,  (which  has  been 
termed  panary,  from  the  latin,  pants,  bread,)  is 
that  which  is  induced  in  a  mixture  of  flour  and 
water  by  yeast,  in  the  makhig  of  bread.  Bread, 
which  has  undergone  this  fermentation,  is  termed 
leavened  bread,  to  distinguish  it  from  that  m  which 
there  has  been  no  chemical  change.  Sea  biscuits, 
and  other  hard  bread  of  similar  nature,  also  that  used 
by  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  their  passover,  come  un- 
der the  denomination  of  unleavened  bread,  whilst 
that  prepared  by  the  bakers  for  common  use,  is  de- 
nominated leavened  or  loaf  bread,  from  being  pre- 
pared with  yeast. 

The  addition  of  yeast  to  flour  and  water  in  making 
bread,  is,  doubtless,  the  cause  of  improving  it  great- 
ly ;  for  without  it,  this  article  of  food  would  be  hard, 
heavy,  and  indigestible. 

Although  the  fermentation  of  dough  has  been 
termed  panary,  there  is  little  doubt  but  it  is  merely 
a  modification  of  the  acetous.  The  subjects  of  both 
species  of  fermentation  are  certainly  different,  in  re- 
gard to  consistency,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  modi- 
fication alluded  to,  is  the  consequence  of  this  difler- 
ence  :  for,  the  fermentible  matter,  from  want  of  room 


BREAD.  91 

for  action,  does  not  arrive  at  the  same  point  of  chem- 
ical change,  which  it  would  do  in  a  more  diluted 
state.  We  shall  not  attempt  to  theorize  on  the 
changes  which  take  place  during  the  panary  fermen- 
tation, further  than  to  suppose  that  flour,  yeast,  and 
water,  give  out  their  elementary  components  for  the 
formation  of  saccharine  matter,  starch,  carbonic  acid, 
and  acetic  acid ;  and  that  during  the  incipient  gen- 
eration of  the  latter,  the  process  is  stopped  by  the 
action  of  the  artificial  heat.  The  loaf  retains  its 
shape  and  bulk,  from  the  innumerable  cells  formed 
in  it  by  the  carbonic  acid.  The  walls  of  these  cells 
being  suddenly  hardened  by  the  heat,  (the  carbonic 
acid  being  doubtless  driven  off,)  they  retain  their 
shape  and  the  loaf  thus  remains  spongy.  It  some- 
times happens,  from  various  causes,  but  especially 
from  cold,  that  the  fermentation  is  checked ;  when 
this  is  the  case,  the  dough  is  technically  said  to  set ; 
and  the  consequence  is,  that  when  baked,  the  bread 
is  disagreeable,  heavy,  and  unwholesome.  To  pre- 
vent setting,  bakers  in  winter  give  the  dough  a  suffi- 
cient temperature,  by  shuttmg  the  doors  to  prevent 
the  admission  of  cold  air,  and  by  placing  the  leaven 
near  the  door  of  the  oven.* 

*  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  very  hurtful  to  the  constitution.  It  is  to  be  feared, 
that  in  bake  houses,  this  gas  is  more  plentifully  inhaled  than  is  either  neces- 
sary or  proper.  It  is  well  known,that,  in  order  to  be  able  to  supply  the  public 
with  fresh  bread  for  breakfast,  bakers  are  in  the  habit  of  working  all  night. 
About  eleven  o'clock  at  night,  they  make  the  sponge  or  dough,  which,  of 
course,  must  have  sometime  for  fermentation  ;  whilst  this  is  taking  place, 
the  baker,  who  has  perhaps  slept  little  during  the  day,  indulges  himself 
now  ;  and  as  he  is  fearful  of  not  awaking  in  time  to  work  the  sponge  into 
loaves,  and  of  baking  it  in  the  oven  ;  he  hits  upon  the  following  ingenious, 
but  pernicious  expedient.  He  knows  that  the  dough  in  the  trough  is  every 
minute  becoming  more  spongy,  from  the  incessant  action  of  the  ferment. 
This  enlargement  of  bulk  will,  of  course,  raise  or  resist  any  weight  placed 


,92  BREAD. 

Leavened  bread  is  chiefl}^  made  from  wheaten 
flour,  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  though  potatoes 
and  rice  flour  are  frequently,  and  with  advantage, 
used  in  its  preparation.  In  London  the  quantity  of 
potatoes  used  in  the  best  baker's  bread,  is  from  ten 
to  fifteen  pounds  to  every  sack  of  flour ;  (a  sack  is 
three  bushels.)  The  finest  flour  is  seldom,  or  never 
used  in  making  loaf  bread ;  it  is  always  emplo}  ed  in 
making  biscuits  and  pastry.  The  coarser  sorts  there- 
fore being  made  into  loaves,  there  are  two  kinds 
with  which  the  public  are  supplied ;  these  are  stand- 
ard wheaten,  and  brown,  or  household  wheaten 
bread.  The  latter  consisting  of  all  the  constituents 
of  the  wheat,  is  considered  the  most  wholesome, 
when  the  grain  has  been  good  from  which  the  flour 
was  ground.  It  is  this  bread  which  is  generally  used 
among  the  English  farmers.  Each  poimd  of  the 
flour,  used  in  its  preparation,  consists  of  ten  ounces 
and  six  drams  of  starch,  four  ounces  of  bran,  one 
ounce  of  gluten,  and  two  drams  of  sugar.  The  same 
proportion  of  ingredients  does  not,  of  course,  exist 
in  those  sorts  of  wheaten  flour  from  which  the 
bran,  &c.,  has  been  separated. 

But,  as  the  fine,  or  the  whitest  flour,  is  that  which 
fetches  the  highest  price,  and  as  people  generally 
imagine  that  the  whitest  loaf  contains  the  greatest 

upon  the  dough  ;  consequently  the  lid  of  llie  troiigli,  and  any  weight  laid 
upon  it,  will  be  eleyated,  when  the  fermentation  has  arrived  at  that  point, 
at  which  it  may  be  divided  into  loates.  The  baker,  therefore,  considering 
a  sioiilar  elevation  of  his  own  body  as  a  sufficient  clieck  on  somnolency,  hiys 
himself  down  to  sleep  upon  the  lid  of  the  trough  ;  the  consequence  is,  that 
he  is  certainly  aroused  from  his  unhealthy  slumbers  at  the  required  period  ; 
but  his  constittition  is  sure  to  sutfcr  from  the  imniense  body  of  carbonic  acid 
eas  which  is  liberated  during  tlie  fermentation. 


BRI^AD.  #3 

quantit}^  of  nutritive  matter,  it  has  always  been  an 
object  with  bakers,  to  render  the  coarsest  flour  white 
enough  to  be  used  in  making  the  standard  wheaten 
bread.     But  for  this  purpose,  the  most  unjustifiable 
means  have  been  used :  regarding  the  use  of  pota- 
toes and  rice,  there  can  be  no  possible  blame  attach- 
ed to  them ;  but  when  plaister  of  Paris,  chalk,  and 
alum,  are  resorted  to,  the  trade  of  a  baker  may  be 
justly  denominated  one  that  is  injurious  to  society. 
Besides  the  occasional  use  of  the  two  former  mineral 
substances,  it  is  here  confidently  asserted,  that  each 
inhabitant  of  London,  generally  at  every  meal,  swal- 
lows tv/enty  two  grains  of  alum,*  in  the  bread  which 
he  eats.     There  are  some  cases,  where  even  more 
alum  than  the  quantity  here  specified  enters  into  the 
composition  of  bread.. 

•This  assertion  is  not  made  without  proper  evidence.  In  addition  lo 
other  undoubted  authorities,  a  tradesman  who  deals  in  salt,  alum,  &c.,  and 
who  is  in  the  habit  of  furnishing  bakers  with  these  articles,  informed  the 
aathor,  that  he  supplies  each  of  his  customers,  every  night,  with  two  pounds 
of  alum,  and  six  pounds  of  common  salt.  These  quantities  they  use  foi  each 
sack  of  flour.  The  employment  of  salt  in  bread  is  attended  with  great  ad- 
vantages to  health,  but  tha(  of  alum  is  truly  pernicious :  and  what  is  worse, 
it  yet  remains  to  be  proved,  whether  even  the  very  appearance  of  bread  (as 
to -colour)  is  improved  by  the  use  of  this  astringent  salt.  Even  bakers  them- 
selves acknowledge  that  it  hinders  fermentation,  by  killing  the  yeast.  They 
say,  likewise,  that  to  counteract  its  effects,  they  use  the  potatoes ;  that  is, 
to  promote  the  fermentation  which  has  been  checked  by  alum.  But,  in 
order  to  demonstrate  that  the  quantity  of  alum,  above  specified,  is  actuailj 
swallowed  by  bread-eaters,  we  need  only  reduce  the  two  pounds  of  alum  to 
grains  ;  and  supposing  that  a  quartern  loaf  is  eaten  (at  an  average)  at  eight 
meals,  first,  multiply  the  number  of  quartern  loaves  produced  from  a  sack 
of  flour,  by  eight;  and,  secondly,  divide  the  number  of  grains  of  alum  by 
the  product,  thus  : — A  sack  of  flour  generally  produces  eighty  six  quartern 
loaves ;  .which,  multiplied  by  eight  meals,  produces  688  portions: — two 
pounds  of  alum  being  multiplied  by  16,  become  32  ounces ;  these  multiplied 
by  8,  become  256  drams ;  and  this  product  again  multiplied  by  60,  is  con- 


94  BREAD. 

PREPARATION  OF  BREAD 

ACCORDING  TO  THE  METHOD  PRACTISED  BY  THE  LONDOIf  BAKERS. 

A  sack  of  flour  being  sifted  into  the  kneading 
trough,  to  make  it  lie  loose ;  six  pounds  of  salt,  and 
two  pounds  of  alum,  are  separately  dissolved  in  hot 
water,  and  the  whole  (in  the  quantity  of  a  pailful,) 
being  cooled  to  about  OO"*  Farenheit,  is  mixed  with 
two  quarts  of  yeast.  When  this  mixture  has  been 
■well  stirred,  it  is  strained  through  a  cloth  or  sieve, 
and  is  then  poured  into  a  cavity  made  in  the  flour. 
The  whole  is  now  mixed  up  into  a  dough,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  flour  being  sprinkled  over  it,  it  is 
covered  up  with  cloths,  and  the  trough  lid  is  shut 
down,  the  better  to  retain  the  heat.  The  fermenta- 
tion now  goes  on,  and  the  mass  becomes  enlarged  in 
bulk.  In  the  course  of  two  or  three  hours,  another 
pailful  of  warm  water  is  well  mixed  with  the  sponge, 
and  it  is  again  covered  up  for  about  four  hours.  At  the 
end  of  this  time,  it  is  to  be  kneaded  for  more  than  an 
hour,  with  three  pailsful  of  warm  water.  It  is  now 
returned  to  the  trough  in  pieces,  sprinkled  with  dry 
flour,  and  at  the  end  of  four  hours  more,  it  is  again 
kneaded  for  half  an  hour,  and  divided  into  quartern 
and  half  quartern  loaves.  The  weight  of  a  quartern 
loaf,  before  baking,  should  be  four  pounds  and  fifteen 

vertible  into  15,360  grains.     If,  then,  we  divide  the  latter  of  these  numbers 
by  the  former,  the  quotient  will  be  22  and  a  fraction,  thus  : — 

688)I5360('22  14-43  grains  of  ahim  in  the  composition  of  an  eighth 
1376  part  of  a  quartern  loaf. 

1600 
137C  . 

16)224(14 

68S  43 


BREAD.  96 

ounces ;  after  baking  four  pounds  and  six  ounces 
avoirdupois.  When  the  dough  has  received  its  pro- 
per shape  for  loaves,  it  is  put  into  the  oven,  (the  heat 
of  which  is  about  450*'  Farenheit,  or  that  which  m  ill 
scorch  flour  without  burning,)  where  it  is  baked  two 
and  a  half,  or  three  hours. 

PREPARATION  OF  HOUSEHOLD  BREAD. 

Four  ounces  of  salt  are  dissolved  in  three  quarts 
of  water,  and  mixed  with  a  pint  of  yeast.  This  mix- 
ture is  poured  into  a  cavity  made  in  a  peck  of  coarse 
or  second  flour,  placed  in  a  trough.  When  properly 
kneaded  and  fermented,  it  is  divided  into  pieces  of  a 
certain  weight,  and  baked  in  an  oven. 

Observation.  Sometimes  a  portion  of  rice  flour, 
or  boiled  potatoes,  or  r}^  meal,  is  mixed  with  the 
flour,  in  the  farm  houses,  previous  to  kneading  the 
dough.  The  rye  and  rice  serve  to  bind  the  bread, 
but  the  potatoes  render  it  light  and  spongy. 

METHOD    OF    PRODUCING    ONE    THIRD    MORE    BREAD, 

FROM   A    GIVEN    ftCASTITY    OF    WHEAT. 

Boil  a  bushel  of  the  coarsest  bran  for  about  an 
hour,  in  six  or  seven  gallons  of  water,  (keeping  it 
well  stirred  that  it  may  not  stick  to  the  bottom  of 
the  copper.)  then  pour  ofl'  the  whole  into  a  trough, 
or  tub,  perforated  full  of  holes  ;  over  which  may  be 
laid  a  coarse  cloth,  to  act  as  a  sieve,  on  the  top  of 
the  whole,  should  be  placed  a  wooden  cover,  having 
a  heavy  weight  placed  thereon,  to  press  out  all  the 
liquor  from  the  bran  ;  which  will  then  be  left  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tub,  in  a  thick  pulp.  The  liquor  that 
will  be  expressed,  will  contain  all  the  essential  oil  of 


96  BREAD. 

the  wheat,  and  will  be  of  the  consistency  of  paste, 
having  a  very  agreeable  taste  and  smell,  similar  to 
the  milk  that  is  found  in  green  grain.  The  next  thing 
is,  to  appl}^  this  liquor  or  mixture  to  the  purpose  of 
making  the  dough,  being  careful  not  to  mix  raw 
water  therewith,  as  it  will  set  the  mixture.  The 
proper  quantity  of  bread  being  made,  it  will  be  found 
to  weigh  when  completely  baked,  full  one-third  more 
than  the  same  quantity  of  flour,  made  simply  with 
water  in  the  usual  way. 

Observations.  In  domestic  establishments,  in  the 
country,  this  method  is  peculiarly  applicable,  where 
wheat  is  sent  to  the  mill  from  the  consumer ;  and  it 
is  not  necessary  to  make  any  calculation,  or  point  out 
the  saving  to  the  public,  even  by  a  partial  adoption 
of  this  plan.  Was  it  generally  carried  into  effect,  it 
would  be  equal  to  bringing  six  hundred  thousand 
acres  of  land  into  the  cultivation  of  bread  corn. 

BREAD    MADE    OF    ICELAND    MOSS,    WITH    FLOUR. 

Of  late  years,  Iceland  moss  has  been  used  (either 
alone  or  mixed  with  flour,)  in  the  composition  ol' 
bread,  in  those  districts  where  flour  docs  not  exist  in 
plenty.  The  authorities  of  Saxony  published  a  re- 
port on  the  subject,  in  which  we  are  informed  that 
seven  pounds  of  linchen  meal  boiled  with  fourteen 
times  its  qiiantity  of  water,  and  baked  in  tins  state  with 
fifty-nine  and  a  half  pounds  of  flour,  produced  one 
hundred,  eleven  and  a  half  pounds  of  good  household 
bread.  Without  this  addition,  the  flour  would  not 
have  produced  more  than  seventy-eight  and  a  half 
pounds  of  bread. 


LEATHER.  9f 

To  prepare  this  bread  on  a  smaller  scale,  use  the 
following  quantities. — It  is  known  that  three  pounds 
of  flour  yield  four  pounds  of  household  bread ;  one 
pound  of  linchen  meal  added  in  the  form  of  paste, 
will  give  an  addition  of  nearly  six  pounds,  and  there- 
fore is  equivalent,  in  this  view,  to  about  three  and  a 
half  pounds  of  flour,  because  it  affords  above  three 
and  a  half  times  more  bread. 

Observation.  Nearly  all  the  Iceland  moss  collect- 
ed in  Germany,  is  sent  to  England,  where  it  is 
used  in  brewing,  and  in  the  composition  of  ship  bis- 
cuit. Biscuit  which  contains  it,  as  a  constituent  part, 
is  not  attacked  by  worms,  and  suffers  little  by  the  ac- 
tion of  sea-water.  This  linchen,  when  deprived  of 
its  bitter  principle,  forms  an  excellent  soup ;  and 
when  coagulated,  a  good  jelly* 

LEATHER. 

Conversion  of  animal  mDES  or  skms  into  leather* 

This  process  is  what  is  generally  termed  tanning. 
It  is  founded  on  the  affinity  which  is  known  to  exist 
between  the  gelatinous  part  of  the  hide,  and  the  tan, 
or  astringent  principle  of  oak  bark,  and  other  vege- 
table substances.  It  is  well  known  that  unless  hides 
are  speedily  dried,  they  become  putrid,  and  conse- 
quently unfit  for  use.  But  even  although  they  be 
successfully  dried,  they  are  still  unfit  for  the  matiu- 
facture  of  shoes  and  other  necessary  articles  ;  being 
permeable  to  moisture,  and  liable  to  be  soon  destroy- 
ed by  friction.  Consequently,  in  almost  every  coun- 
try where  animal  hides  are  used  for  purposes  of 

13 


9$  LEATHEll. 

convenience, thej  are  made  to  undergo  certain  modes 
of  treatment,  which  render  them  not  only  impermea- 
ble to  Avater,  but  also  tougher,  and  more  pliable,  so 
as  to  be  easily  and  adv  antageously  worked. 

The  combination  of  the  vegetable  astringent  prin- 
ciple, or  tannin,  with  the  gelatine,  (which  forms 
almost  the  whole  of  the  hide,)  changes  it  into  leath- 
er, which  is  a  substance  totally  different  in  its  pro- 
perties to  the  hide  in  its  raw  state.  To  tan  a  hide 
then  is  to  saturate  it  with  tannin. 

Previous  to  the  operation  of  tanning,  the  raw  or 
green  hides  must  undergo  the  process  of  washing 
and  scouring,  to  free  them  from  foreign  matter,  and 
to  remove  the  hair.  Hides  are  first  put  to  steep  in 
water,  either  pure  or  acidulated,  to  clear  them  from 
the  blood  and  filth  they  may  have  collected  in  the 
slaughter  house.  I'hey  are  left  to  soak  in  the  water 
for  some  time ;  and  then  handled,  or  trod  upon  by  the 
feet,  the  better  to  cleanse  them  of  all  impurities.  If 
the  hides  are  dry  they  are  steeped  a  longer  time, 
sometimes  for  four  days,  or  longer  according  to  the 
season  of  the  year,  and  care  is  taken  to  draw  them 
out  once  a  day,  in  order  to  stretch  them  on  a  wooden 
horse  or  beam.  These  two  operations  are  repeated 
till  the  skin  becomes  raised  or  well  softened.  A  run- 
ning stream  is  necessary  in  these  operations,  else, 
the  hides  cannot  fail  of  being  ill  pre})ared. 

When  the  hides  have  been  well  raised,  and  soften- 
ed, they  are  next  freed  from  the  hair,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  lime.  In  ail  tanneries,  pits  are  formed 
having  their  sides  lined  with  stone  or  brick,  in  which 
lime  stone  is  slacked,  so  as  to  form  milk  of  lime.  Of 
these  there  are  three  kinds,  according  to  the  strength 


LEATHER.  099 

of  the  lime.  The  hides  intended  to  be  scoured,  are 
first  put  into  the  weakest  of  these  pits,  wherein  they 
are  allowed  to  remain,  until  the  hair  readily  yields 
to  the  touch. 

If  this  liquor  be  not  sufficiently  active,  the  hides 
are  removed  to  the  next  in  gradation,  and  the 
time  they  havf  for  soaking  is  longer  or  shorter,  in 
proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  lime,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  and  the  nature  of  the  hides.  Those 
of  sheep  require  to  remain  in  the  pits  only  a  few 
days.  It  has  been  proposed  to  substitute  lime  ivater 
in  place  of  the  milk  of  lime.  But  though  the  lime 
water  acts  at  first  with  sufficient  strength,  its  action, 
is  not  sufficiently  permanent,  and  in  order  to  succeed 
in  clearing  the  hides,  it  is  necessary  to  renew  it  oc- 
casionally. In  some  tanneries,  after  the  hides  have 
been  kept  in  the  pits  for  a  short  time,  they  are  piled 
up  in  a  heap  on  the  groimd ;  in  whicji  state  they  are 
suffered  to  remain  for  eight  daj  s,  after  which  ther 
are  returned  into  the  same  pits  from  whence  they 
were  taken,  and  the  process  is  repeated  till  the  hair 
can  be  easily  scraped  off".  Hides  may  also  be  clean- 
sed by  subjecting  them  to  an  incipient  fermentation, 
produced  by  souring  a  mixture  of  barley  flour  in 
w^arm  water,  and  soaking  the  hides  in  it,  till  they  are 
sufficiently  swelled  and  softened  to  admit  of  being 
i-leared  from  the  hair.  In  each  tan  house  are  placed 
several  tubs  full  of  this  acid  liquor,  which  is  of  dif- 
ferent strengths  in  proportion  as  it  is  soured.  In 
those  containing  the  weakest  liquor,  the  hides  are 
first  soaked,  handled,  and  washed ;  and  after  two,  or 
at  most  three  of  these  operations,  they  are  sufficient- 
ly prepared  to  admit  of  being  freed  from  the  hair. 


100  LEATHER. 

If  more  easily  procured,  rye  flour  may  be  substituted 
for  barley. 

The  Calmuck  Tartars  employ  sour  milk  with  the 
same  view,  and  Pseiffer  proposes  the  use  of  the  acid- 
water  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  coal  and  turf 
It  indeed  appears  sufficiently  ascertained,  that  all 
the  vegetable  acids,  and  even  diluted  Sulphuric  acid, 
answer  equally  well  for  this  purpose. 

In  some  tanneries  they  cleanse  the  hides  by  throw- 
ing salt  over  the  one  half  of  the  skin,  and  doubling 
the  other  half  over  it ;  in  proportion  as  each  hide  is 
salted,  they  are  laid  one  above  another,  and  the 
whole  are  covered  with  straw  or  flax  ;  fermentation 
soon  begins,  after  which  they  are  turned  once  or 
twice  daily,  until  they  are  found  to  be  in  a  proper 
state  for  removing  the  hair.  They  may  be  cleansed 
however,  much  in  the  same  manner,  without  the  em- 
ployment of  salt,  b}-^  piling  them  up  on  a  bed  of  litter, 
and  covering  them  with  the  same  material  for  twen- 
ty four  hours.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  they  are 
turned  over,  and  afterwards  examined  twice  a  day, 
in  order  to  ascertain  when  the  hair  may  be  readily 
removed. 

In  some  tanneries  the  hides  are  buried  in  dung, 
while  in  others,  they  are  simply  exposed  in  a  close 
apartment,  termed  a  smoke  house,  heated  by  means 
of  a  tan  fire,  which  gives  out  smoke  without  flame. 
The  hides  are  suspended  on  long  poles  placed  across 
these  apartments,  which  are  heated  very  consider- 
ably. 

All  the  methods  in  which  fermentation  is  employ- 
ed, are  termed  heating;  processes.  In  whatever  man- 
ner this  operation  has  been  conducted,  as  soon  as 


LEATHER.  lOl 

the  hair  is  in  a  fit  state  to  be  removed,  it  is  scraped 
off,  on  the  wooden  horse,  by  means  of  a  blimt  knife, 
or  by  a  whet-stone.  This  operation  is  not  only  in- 
tended to  remove  the  hair,  but  likewise  the  scarf-skin 
or  epidermis,  which  is  of  a  very  different  nature  from 
that  of  the  true  skin.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  and 
alcohol ;  is  soluble  in  acids,  but  not  susceptible  of 
combination  with  tan,  so  that  when  left  on  the  hide, 
the  tan  can  only  penetrate  through  the  under  side, 
by  which  means  the  process  of  tanning  is  rendered 
extremely  tedious. 

There  are  many  vegetable  substances  which  pos- 
sess the  tanning  principle,  or  tannin ;  but  those  wliich 
possess  most,  are  the  oak,  alder,  willow,  and  Peruvi* 
an  barks,  also  the  gallnut.  The  Peruvian  bark,  from 
its  scarcity  and  high  price,  is  only  used  in  medicine. 
As  oak  bark  possesses  more  tan  than  any  other  vege- 
table substance,  it  is  generally  used  for  tanning.  This 
bark  being  stripped  from  those  trees  which  are  cut 
down  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  is  dried  in  covered 
heaps,  in  the  open  air.  It  is  then  ground  to  a  coarse 
poAvder  in  a  mill,  and  mixed  with  water  in  the  tan- 
pits.  The  infusion,  or  liquor,  which  is  of  a  brownish 
amber  colour,  is  called  ooze ;  but  is,  properly  speak- 
ing, a  solution  of  tannin  and  other  vegetable  matters. 

The  hides,  being  scoured,  raised,  and  softened,  are 
first  subjected  to  the  action  of  weak  ooze  in  one  of 
these  pits  :  here  they  remain  for  several  weeks,  and 
in  the  interim  are  frequently  agitated  and  handled. 
From  thence  it  is  removed  to  a  pit  containing  a 
stronger  infusion,  where  it  remains  for  a  considerable 
time ;  that  is,  until  it  has  absorbed  all  the  tan.  It  is 
now  immersed  in  a  still  stronger  infusion,  and  so  on. 


1102  LEATHER. 

'When  the  hide  has  attained  the  colour  of  cinnainou 
bark  on  its  outside,  and  when  its  internal  parts  are 
equally  brown  when  cut  through  with  a  knife  ;  it  has 
received  its  full  dose  of  tan,  and  is  converted  into 
leather.  But  if  a  white  or  greyish  streak  appear  in 
the  centre  of  the  hide  or  skin,  it  is  to  be  again  im- 
mersed in  the  tan-pit.  Calf  skins  require  only  about 
two  or  three  months,  before  the  process  of  tanning 
is  finished ;  whereas  ox  hides  are  not  perfectly  con- 
verted into  leather,  for  six,  eight,  or  even  fifteen 
months.  When  perfectly  tanned,  the  hides  are  taken 
out,  drained,  passed  between  two  iron  cylinders,  that 
they  may  become  pliant,  and  are  then  hung  up  in  a 
drying  house,  until  they  become  perfectly  dry  by 
exposure  to  the  air.  The  smaller  hides  now  under- 
go the  operation  of  currying,  which  renders  them 
pliant,  and  reduces  them  to  a  uniform  thickness. — 
This  consists  in  cutting,  soaking,  paring,  scouring, 
stretching,  and  oiling.  The  leather  is  then  blacken- 
ed by  a  composition  of  lamp-black,  oil,  and  tallow ; 
which  is  rubbed  hard  into  the  fleshy  side.  It  is  now 
fit  for  sale. 

Observations.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  leather 
would  be  tanned  much  sooner,  and  equally  well,  if 
the  tan-pits  were  made  within  a  building,  so  as  to  be 
secured  from  rain  ;  and  if  the  building  were  furnish- 
ed with  flues  or  steam  pipes,  so  as  to  keep  the  tem- 
perature of  the  vats  constantly  at  a  full  summer  heat. 
Another  important  improvement  might  be  made  in 
tanning,  if  the  skins  were  hung  vertically  in  the  pits, 
so  that  the  tanning  liquor  might,  from  the  first  part 
«f  the  process,  touch  every  part  of  the  skin  equalh'. 


LEATHER.  103 

PATENTS. 

METHOD  OP  TANNING  LEATHER,  BY  THE  DECOCTION  OF  BARK. 

In  1804,  a  patent  was  granted  in  England,  for  an 
improved  method  of  tanning  hides  :  viz.  by  immers- 
ing them  in  tjie  liquor  in  which  oak  bark  had  been 
boiled.  According  to  this  improvement,  the  paten- 
tees filled  a  boiler  of  copper  (or  any  other  metal  that 
does  not  stain  or  colour  the  liquor)  half  full  of 
ground  bark,  and  poured  water  upon  it  up  to  the 
brim.  The  whole  is  then  boiled  for  three  hours,  till 
the  tanning  principle  is  completely  extracted.  The 
liquor  is  then  suffered  to  run  off  by  a  cock  into  pits, 
where  it  stands  to  cool.  The  hides  are  now  put  into 
the  liquor  and  handled  frequently  by  taking  them 
out  and  putting  them  in  again,  because  the  liquor  is 
too  powerful  for  them  to  remain  long  in  at  a  time  in 
the  first  stages  of  tanning.  They  are  then  to  be  re- 
moved to  fresh  liquors,  from  time  to  time  as  the  old 
is  weakened,  until  the  operation  is  complete.  By 
this  method  a  greater  quantity  of  the  tanning  princi- 
ple is  collected  into  a  small  compass,  less  bark  is 
consumed,  and  there  is  a  great  saving  of  labour. 

If  leather  is  required  of  a  lighter  colour  or  bloom, 
a  small  quantity  of  the  dust  of  bark  is  mixed  with 
the  liquor.  By  this  method,  hides  that  have  been 
shaved  in  the  baits,  may  be  better  tanned  in  two  or 
three  weeks,  and  skins  in  ten  or  twelve  days,  than  in 
the  one  case  in  nine  months,  and  in  the  other  in  six 
month?  by  the  usual  process. 

Observations.  Here,  the  great  advantage  is  that 
derived   from   extracting  the  tanning  principle  by 


Vb4:  "LEATHKR. 

means  of  boiling ;  as  business  to  any  extent  may  he 
carried  on  with  about  one  tenth  part  of  the  capital 
employed  on  the  old  plan. 

Besides  bark,  the  patentees  make  use  of  oak  chips, 
and  oak  sawdust,  they  have  succeeded  with  the  com- 
mon heath  or  lieather ;  and  they  find  that  the  bark 
of  most  trees  that  produce  hard  wood  nas  a  tanning 
principle  in  them ;  but  above  all,  they  recommend 
the  yoimg  shoots  from  the  roots  of  oaks,  and  the 
superfl  jous  twigs  or  branches  that  may  be  lopt  off, 
so  as  not  to  injure  the  trees.  These,  when  cut  in 
the  proper  season,  may  be  chopped  and  ground,  and 
boiled  with  bark,  and  will  produce  a  stronger  tanning 
liquor  than  bark  from  the  trunks  of  trees  that  have  a 
thick  rind,  which  cannot  be  separated  from  the  bark. 

By  another  patent  in  1819,  the  art  of  tanning  by 
decoction  is  still  further  improved.  This  patentee 
has  proved  that  the  trunk,  roots,  limbs,  branches  and 
leaves  of  the  oak,  whether  tree,  pollard,  coppice,  or 
underwood,  possess  tanning  properties  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  be  employed  with  advantage  for  tanning, 
by  reducing  them  to  chips  or  sawdust,  and  then  boil- 
ing and  using  them  in  the  following  wa}^ : 

To  tan  calf,  or  other  thin  skins,  put  one  hundred 
weight  of  the  limbs  or  branches,  chopped  as  above 
mentioned,  into  a  copper  containing  about  sixty  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  boil,  till  the  water  be  reduced  to 
from  thirty  five  to  fort}-  gallons,  draw  off  the  decoc- 
tion. 

Now  add  to  the  same  limbs  or  branches,  forty  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  again  boil  till  the  water  be  reduced 
to  about  twenty  five  gallons.  The  liquor  thus  pro- 
duced by  the  second  boiling  is  used  as  a  weak  ooze, 


LEATHER.  105 

in  the  first  process  of  immersing  the  calf  skins,  after 
they  come  from  the  scouring  beam.  The  decoction 
first  produced,  is  then  to  be  used  in  the  same  way. 

To  tan  hides,  take  one  hundred  weight  of  the  hmbs 
or  branches,  three  quarters  of  a  hundred  weight  of 
oak  sawdust,  (the  sooner  the  latter  is  used  after  being 
made  the  better,)  and  one  quarter  of  a  hundred 
weight  of  the  root,  boil  in  eighty  gallons  of  water, 
till  reduced  to  from  fifty  to  sixty  gallons.  Draw  off 
the  decoction  and  put  it  aside  for  use.  To  the  ma- 
terials left  in  the  copper  add  sixty  gallons  of  water, 
and  again  boil  till  reduced  to  from  thirty  to  thirty 
five  gallons.  The  liquor  produced  by  this  second 
boiling  is  to  be  employed  in  the  first  stage  of  tanning 
hides  after  they  come  from  the  beam;  and  after- 
wards, the  decoction  first  produced  is  to  be  employ- 
ed. The  skins  and  hides  having  undergone  the  be- 
fore mentioned  processes,  add  as  much  oak  bark  or 
tan  liquor,  or  both,  to  the  respective  decoctions,  as 
is  necessary  to  complete  the  tanning.  The  quantity 
of  each  will  vary  according  to  the  strength  of  such 
decoctions ;  which  strength  will  depend  on  the  age 
and  size  of  the  tree,  and  other  circumstances. 

CONVERSION  OF  SHEEP  SKINS  INTO  LEATHER. 

Sheep  skins  which  are  used  for  a  variety  of  pur- 
poses, such  as  gloves,  book  covers,  &c.,  and  which, 
when  dyed,  are  conv^erted  into  mock  Morocco  leather, 
are  dressed  as  follows  : 

They  are  first  to  be  soaked  in  wafer  and  handled, 
to  separate  all  impurities,  which  may  be  scraped  off 
by  a  blunt  knife  on  a  beam.  They  are  then  to  be 
hung  up  in  a  close  warm  room  to  putrefy.     This  pu- 

14 


106  LEATHER. 

trefaction  loosens  the  wool,  and  causes  the  exudation 
of  an  oily  and  slimy  matter,  all  which  are  to  be  re- 
moved with  tlie  knife.  The  skins  are  now  to  be 
steeped  in  milk  of  lime,  to  harden  and  thicken,  here 
they  remain  for  a  month  or  six  weeks,  according  to 
circumstances,  and  when  taken  out,  they  are  to  be 
smoothed  on  the  fleshy  side  by  a  sharp  knife.  They 
are  now  to  be  steeped  in  a  bath  of  bran  and  water, 
where  they  undergo  a  partial  fermentation,  and  be- 
come thinner  in  their  substance. 

The  skins,  which  are  now  called  pelts,  are  to  be 
imttiersed  in  a  solution  of  alum  and  common  salt  in 
water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  hundred  and  tAventy 
skins  to  three  pounds  of  alum  and  five  pounds  of  salt. 
They  are  to  be  much  agitated  in  this  compound  sa- 
line bath,  in  order  to  become  firm  and  tough.  From 
this  bath  they  are  to  be  removed  to  another,  compos- 
ed of  bran  and  water,  where  they  remain  until  quite 
pliant  by  a  slight  fermentation.  To  give  their  upper 
surfaces  a  gloss,  they  are  to  be  trodden  in  a  wooden 
tub,  with  a  solution  of  30] ks  of  eggs  in  water,  pre- 
viously well  beaten  up.  When  this  solution  has  be- 
come transparent,  it  is  a  proof  that  the  skins  have 
absorbed  the  glazing  matter.  The  pelt  may  now  be 
said  to  be  converted  into  leather,  which  is  to  be 
drained  from  moisture,  hung  upon  hooks  in  a  warm 
apartment  to  dry,  and  smoothed  over  with  warm 
hand-irons. 

Observations.  To  prepare  sheep  leather  for  vari- 
ous elegant  purposes,  by  dying ;  the  skins,  after  be- 
ing taken  from  the  lime  bath,  are  to  be  immersed  in 
Another,  composed  of  dog  and  pigeon  dung  dissolved 
by  agitation  in  water :  here  they  remain  until  the 


LEATHER.  107 

the  lime  is  separated,  and  until  the  skins  have  attain- 
ed the  state  of  soft  pliable  pelt.  To  dye  this  pelt 
red,  the  skins  are  to  be  washed  and  sewed  into  bags, 
and  stuffed  with  clippings  and  shavings  of  leather, 
or  any  other  convenient  substance,  and  immersed 
with  the  grain  side  outwards^  in  a  bath  of  alum  and 
cochineal  of  the  temperature  of  170°  or  180**  Faren- 
heit,  where  they  are  to  be  agitated  untU  they  are 
sufficiently  dyed.  Each  bag  is  now  to  be  transferred 
to  a  sumach  bath,  where  they  receive  consistency 
and  tenacity.  From  this  bath  it  is  customary  to  re- 
move the  skins,  and  to  plunge  them  into  a  saffron 
one,  to  improve  their  colour.  To  dye  these  skins 
black,  the  washed  pelt  is  to  be  first  immersed  m  the 
sumach  bath,  and  then  to  be  rubbed  over  on  the 
grained  side,  by  a  stiff  brush  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
acetate,  or  pyrolignite  of  iron. 

To  give  these  skins  the  grain  and  polish  of  moroc- 
co leather,  they  are  first  oiled,  and  then  rubbed  on  a 
firm  board  by  a  convex  piece  of  solid  glass,  to  which 
a  handle  is  attached.  The  leather  being  now  ren- 
dered more  compact,  is  rubbed  or  pressed  hard  by  a 
sharply  grooved  box  wood  instrument,  shaped  like 
the  glass  one  just  described. 

Lamb  and  kid  skins  are  dressed,  tanned,  and  dyed 
in  a  similar  manner. 

MANUFACTURE  OP  REAL  MOROCCO  LEATHER. 

Goat  skins  are  to  be  cleansed,  have  their  hair  re- 
moved, and  to  be,  limed  as  in  the  before  mentioned 
processes.  They  are  then  to  undergo  a  partial  fer- 
mentation by  a  bath  of  bran  and  water,  and  after- 
wards to  be  immersed  in  another  bath  of  white  figs 


108  LEATHER. 

and  water,  where  they  are  to  remain  for  live  or  six 
days.  It  is  now  necessary  to  dip  them  in  a  solution 
of  salt  and  water,  to  fit  them  for  dyeing.  To  com- 
municate a  red  colour,  the  alum  and  cochineal  balh 
is  to  be  used  as  for  sheep  skins;  for  black,  sumacLi 
and  iron-liquor  as  before ;  and  for  yellotv,  the  bath 
is  to  be  composed  of  alum  and  the  pomegranate  bark. 
The  tanning,  dressing,  and  graining  are  the  same 
as  for  sheep  skins. 

MANUFACTURE  OP  RUSSIA  LEATHER. 

Calf  skins  being  steeped  in  a  weak  bath  of  carbo- 
nate of  potass  and  water,  are  well  cleaned  and  scrap- 
ed to  have  the  hair,  &c.,  removed.  They  are  now 
immersed  in  another  bath,  containing  dog  and  pigeon 
dung  in  water.  Being  thns  freed  from  the  alkali, 
they  are  thrown  into  a  mixture  of  oatmeal  and  water 
to  undergo  a  slight  fermentation.  To  tan  these  hides, 
it  is  necessary  to  use  birch  bark  instead  of  oak  bark; 
and  during  the  operation  they  are  to  be  frequently 
handled  or  agitated.  When  tanned,  and  perfectly 
dry,  they  are  made  pliable  by  oil  and  much  friction  ; 
they  are  then  to  be  rubbed  over  gently  with  birch 
tar,  which  gives  them  that  agreeable  odour,  peculiar 
to  this  kind  of  leather,  and  which  secures  them  a- 
gainst  the  attacks  of  moths  and  worms.  This  odour 
the  leather  will  preserve  for  many  years ;  and  on 
account  of  it,  Russia  leather  is  much  used  in  binding 
handsome  and  costly  books.  The  marks,  or  inter- 
secting lines  on  this  leather,  are  given  to  it  by  pass- 
ing over  its  grained  surface  a  heavy  iron  cylinder 
bound  round  by  wires. 


LEATHER.  (109 

Observations.  To  dye  this  leather  of  a  black  col- 
our, it  is  to  be  rubbed  over,  after  tanning,  with  a  so- 
lution of  acetate,  or  pyrolignite  of  iron ;  to  dye  it 
red^  alum  and  Brazil  wood  are  used.  At  Astrakhan, 
in  Tartary,  another  kind  of  leather,  both  beautiful 
and  durable,  is  manufactured  from  deer  and  goat 
skins.  They  are  cleansed  and  dressed  in  the  same 
manner  as  sheep  skins,  and  then  put  into  a  bath  of  bran 
in  a  state  of  fermentation  with  water  for  three  days. 
Each  skin  is  then  put  into  a  wooden  tray,  where  being 
spread  out,  it  receives  a  portion  of  a  liquor  composed  of 
honey  and  water.  When  the  skin  has  combined  with 
this  liquid,  it  is  immersed  in  a  very  salt  brine  for  a 
short  time,  and  is  then  dried.  To  dye  it  red.,  it  is  to 
be  made  up  in  bags,  and  dipped  in  a  bath  of  cochi- 
neal, containing  an  alkaline  plant  found  in  the  de- 
serts ;  it  is  now  to  be  immersed  in  a  solution  of  alum, 
and  then  tanned  with  sumach.  To  give  this  leather 
a  more  brilliant  and  lasting  red,  it  is  dipped  in  an  in- 
fusion or  decoction  of  galls,  instead  of  sumach.  When 
to  be  dyed  yellow.,  the  berries  of  buckthorn,  or  the 
flowers  of  wild  camomile  are  used.  The  graining  of 
this  leather  is  given  by  an  iron  instrument  of  great 
weight,  having  a  number  of  blunt  points. 

METHOD    OF    TANNING    FISH    AND    OTHER    NETS. 

The  following  method  was  invented  by  a  ship- 
builder at  Bridport.  He  put  one  hundred  weight  of 
oak-branches  and  one  hundred  weight  of  spent  bark 
from  any  tannery  into  one  hundred  gallons  of  water, 
and  so  in  proportion,  for  a  greater  or  less  quantity. 
After  boiling  the  same,  till  it  is  reduced  to  about 
eighty  gallons,  he  takes  the  branches  and  spent  bark 


1 10  TESTS. 

from  the  copper,  by  means  of  any  convenient  instru- 
ment, and  then  immerses  as  many  nets,  sails,  or  other 
articles,  as  are  required,  into  the  liquor  left  in  the 
copper ;  taking  care  that  they  are  completely  cover- 
ed. He  boils  the  whole  together  for  about  three 
hours,  then  removes  the  fire,  and  suffers  the  liquor 
to  get  cool  ;  after  which  removes  the  nets,  sails,  or 
other  articles,  from  the  furnace,  and  hangs  them  up 
to  dry. 

TESTS. 

Experiments  on  the  discovery  of  certain  substances 
in  combinatio?i  with  others  by  means  of  Tests. 

Tests  are  substances  which  detect  the  presence  of 
other  substances  in  combination  with  any  solvent,  or 
known  compound  body.  Their  action  depends 
upon  the  affinity  existing  between  the  substance 
added,  and  any  component  part  of  the  body  under 
trial ;  whereby  a  new  compound  body  is  formed,  dif- 
fering essentially  both  from  the  Test  and  the  body 
acted  on. 


Proof  by  Tumeric  Paper  that  Potassium  is  the  Base 
of  Potass,  and  Sodium  of  Hoda. 

Dip  a  half  sheet  of  tumeric  paper  in  a  bason  of 
distilled  water,  and  shake  off"  the  superfluous  drops ; 
spread  it  on  a  shallow  plate  and  drop  on  it  a  large 
globule  of  potassium,  or  sodium.  Either  of  these 
will  immediately  commence  a  rapid  motion  in  all  di- 


TESTS.  Ill 

rections  on  the  paper,  staining  it  of  a  dark  brown 
colour,  in  lines  as  it  moves  along. 

Observations.  Here  the  potassium  or  sodium  hav- 
ing a  great  affinity  for  oxygen,  combines  ^^■ith  it 
wherever  it  is  to  be  found  in  a  weaker  state  of  affini- 
ty for  any  other  substance,  than  for  itself.  In  this 
case,  the  distilled  water  is  decomposed,  and  its  hy- 
drogen set  free : — the  oxvsfen  combinins;  with  the 
metal.  The  brown  colour  of  the  stains  on  the  paper, 
is  owing  to  the  action  of  a  new  formed  substance  on 
the  vegetable  colouring  matter  of  the  tumeric  :  This 
new  substance  is  the  oxide  of  potassium  or  sodium : 
or  as  they  are  usually  called,  potass,  or  soda. — 
Therefore  potass  or  soda  being  alkalies  have  the 
characteristic  effiect  of  alkalies  on  the  colouring 
matter. 

Test  to  discover  the  presence  of  Gold,  in  solution. 

Pour  about  ten  or  twelve  drops  of  nitro-muriate 
of  gold  into  a  wine  glass  containing  distilled  water  ; 
the  mixture  wUl  in  the  present  case  be  colourless, 
but  if  it  be  stirred  round  with  a  piece  of  tin,  or  a  slip 
of  tinned  iron  ;  it  will  assume  the  appearance  of  port 
wine.  This  precipitate,  (which  is  the  same  as  that 
kno^vn  by  the  name  of  the  purple  precipite  of  cas- 
sius.)  will  soon  fall  down  in  the  form  of  a  purple 
*  powder. 

Tests  for  Lead  aud  Copper  in  Wine,  Cider, 
Perry,  4t. 

Put  into  a  crucible  one  ounce  of  sulpher,  and  one 
ounce  of  pure  lime ;  and  keep  them  in  a  white  heat 
forneariy  half  an  hour;  when  cold,  add  one  ounce 


112  TESTS. 

of  the  super-tartrate  of  potass,  and  boil  the  whole  in 
a  mattrass  with  some  distilled  water  for  about  half 
an  hour.  Decant  the  supernatent  liquor  into  small 
phials,  adding  about  twenty  or  thirty  drops  of  muri- 
atic-acid to  each.  The  phials  must  be  well  stopped 
and  preserved  for  use.  Lead,  copper  and  other  de- 
leterious metals  will  be  precipitated,  of  a  black  col- 
our, by  this  liquid,  if  poured,  in  the  quantity  of  only 
a  few  drops,  into  the  suspected  wine  or  cider. 

Observation.  The  muriatic  acid  is  added  to  this 
test,  to  prevent  the  precipitation  of  iron,  which  might 
exist  in  the  wine  without  any  mischief  resulting  from 
its  use. 

Another  Method. 

Another  test  for  these  pernicious  metals  in  wine 
and  Cider,  exists  ready  formed  in  nature.  Pour  into 
a  glass  of  suspected  wine,  cider,  or  perry,  a  few 
drops  of  Harrowgate  or  Strathpeffer  water.  If  any 
lead,  &c.  be  present,  it  will  fall  down  in  the  state  of 
a  black  precipitate,  being  combined  with  the  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen  by  which  these  waters  are  impreg- 
nated. 

Obervation.  Lead  is  used  by  many  wine  mer- 
chants to  give  an  astringency  to  port  wine;  that  is, 
that  like  old  port  it  may  appear  rough  to  the  tongue. 
Sometimes  they  hang  a  sheet  of  lead  in  the  cask ; 
at  others,  they  pour  in  a  solution  of  acetate  (sugar)  of 
lead ;  for  the  purpose  of  sweetening,  as  they  term  it. 

A  noted  London  wine  merchant,  acknowledged  on 
his  death-bed,  that,  in  the  long  course  ( f  his  exten- 
sive business,  he  had  seen  numbers  of  his  customers 
fall  victims  to  their  predeliction  for  his  wines ;  and 


TESTS.  1 13 

had  remarked  that  no  man  ever  lived  long,  who 
habitually  drank  them ! ! ! 

Arsenic  is  used  to  give  an  oily  appearance  to  sher- 
ry, madeira,  and  other  pale  wines. 

If  the  Harrovvgate  water  is  used  as  a  test,  it  will  be 
proper,  previously,  to  pour  into  the  glass  of  wine,  &c. 
a  few  drops  of  muriatic  acid,  to  hold  the  iron  in  solu- 
tion, as  the  sulphureted  hydrogen  has  not  the  power 
of  taking  it  from  this  acid.  A  solution  of  iron  may 
exist  in  the  wine  without  the  least  detriment  to  the 
consumer. 

To  detect  Alum  in  Red  Wine. 

Add  to  the  wine  a  sufficient  quantity  of  a  strong 
solution  of  chlorine  in  water,  (oxygenated  muriatic 
acid,)  until  it  is  changed  to  a  yellow  colour :  let  the 
precipitate,  (composed  of  the  chlorine  and  the  vege- 
to-animal  matter  contained  in  the  wine,)  which  im- 
mediately forms,  become  settled;  then  filter  the 
liquor,  and  evaporate  it  to  one  fourth  of  its  volume ; 
it  will  now,  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  the 
alum,  have  an  astringent  sweetish  taste,  and  will  fur- 
nish a  white  precipitate  oft  the  addition  of  nitrate  of 
barytes,  which  is  insoluble  in  water  and  in  nitric  acid. 
It  will  give  a  yellowish  white  precipitate  with  pure 
potass,  that  is  soluble  on  the  addition  of  an  excess  of 
the  potass  ;  and  a  precipitate  of  the  same  colour 
with  the  sub-carbonate  of  soda,  which  is  decomposed 
by  the  action  of  heat  into  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
alum,  substances  easily  to  be  recognized  by  their 
characteristics. 

15 


114  TESTS. 

Test  to  detect  the  Adutleration  of  Esseniiid  Oils. 

Essential  oils  are  often  adiijterated  by  alcohol,  also 
by  fixed  and  essential  oils  of  cheaper  price.  To 
detect  alcohol,  pour  two  drams  of  distilled  water  into 
a  dram  of  the  suspected  oil ;  the  whole  will  become 
milky  if  alcohol  be  present.  To  detect  fixed  oils, 
as  almond,  and  olive  oil,  let  a  drop  of  the  suspected 
oil  fall  on  a  piece  of  writing  paper,  and  hold  it  near 
the  fire  ;  if  the  w  hole  evaporates,  and  leaves  no  stain 
upon  the  paper,  there  is  no  fixed  oil  present ;  but  if 
a  stain  remains,  that  is,  if  the  part  where  tlie  drop 
fell  appears  greasy  or  transparent,  the  essential  oil 
has  been  adulterated  either  by  almond,  or  olive  oil. 

Solvetitfor  Silver;  and  Tests  for  its  Midler  ation 
by  other  Metals. 

Dissolve  an  ounce  of  nitrate  of  potass  in  eight 
ounces  of  sulphuric  acid  in  a  glass  vessel  over  a 
lamp,  and  put  into  it  several  pieces  of  impure  silver, 
or  suspected  coin.  When  the  liquid  arrives  at  the 
temperature  of  220",  the  silver  will  be  acted  on  by 
(what  ma}^  be  termed)  nitro-sulphuric  acid  :  this  ac- 
tion w  ill  be  attended  by  an  evolution  of  nitrous  gas. 

Obserialions.  The  best  property  of  this  solvent 
is,  that  it  does  not  act  on  any  other  metal  than  the 
silver;  consequently  if  base  silver  coin  be  held  with 
a  forceps  in  this  hot  acid,  it  w  ill  be  quickly  stripped 
of  its  silver}'  coat,  and  the  copper,  &c.,  will  be  ex- 
posed to  view\  This  compound  acid  is  also  useful 
in  the  large  way,  in  extracting  pure  silver  from  old 
plated  goods,  as  the  copper,  &.C.,  cannot  be  acted  on. 


TESTS.  ill  6 

Muriate  of  Tin  a  Test  for  Tannin. 

As  it  is  of  importance  in  many  cases  to  ascertain 
the  existence  of  tannin,  or  the  astringent  principle  in 
vegetable  infusions,  the  following  may  be  depended 
on  as  a  delicate  test.  Pour  a  few  drops  of  the  solu- 
tion of  muriate  of  tin  into  a  wine  glass  containing  an 
infusion  of  gall-nuts,  or  of  Peruvian,  or  oak  bark. 
This  salt  will  form  an  insoluble  precipitate  with  the 
tannin,  contained  in  each  of  these. 

Test  for  the  Purity  of  Alcohol. 

It  IS  a  common  practice  for  apothecaries,  in  order 
to  ascertain  if  spirit  of  w'me  be  sufficiently  strong, 
to  pour  some  into  a  cup  upon  gunpowder,  and  then 
to  set  fire  to  it.  If  the  spirit  be  sufficiently  strong, 
after  burning  down  to  the  gunpowder,  it  will  inflame ; 
but  if  too  much  water  had  been  mixed  with  it,  that 
Avould  not  take  place,  as,  after  the  spirit  was  con- 
sumed, there  would  still  be  water  enough  left  to 
keep  the  gunpowder  wet. 

To  detect  the  Adulterations  of  Tea. 

The  Chinese  sometimes  mix  the  leaves  of  other 
shrubs  with  tea;  but  this  is  easily  discovered,  (if 
not  at  first  sight,)  by  making  an  infusion  of  it,  into 
which  put  a  grain  and  a  half  of  blue  vitriol,  or  cop- 
peras ;  if  it  be  good  genuine  green  tea,  and  set  in  a 
good  light,  it  will  appear  of  a  fine  light  blue  ;  if  it  be 
genuine  bohea,  it  will  turn  of  a  blue  next  to  black : 
but  if  they  be  adulterated,  green,  yellow  and  black 
colours  will  be  seen  in  them. 


116  TESTS. 

After  this  fraud  was  detected,  the  Chinese  dyed 
the  leaves  of  damaged  and  ordinary  green  tea,  with 
Japan  earth,  (terra  Japonica,)  which  gives  the  leaf, 
the  infusion,  the  tincture,  and  the  colour  of  bohea. 
This  is  to  be  discovered  many  ways :  First,  a  less 
quantity  of  this  dyed  tea,  gives  a  deeper  colour  to 
the  same  proportion  of  water,  than  if  it  was  good. 
Secondly,  the  colour  it  gives  the  water  will  also  be 
of  a  reddish  brown,  whereas  it  shocdd  be  dark. 
Thirdly,  when  the  leaves  have  been  washed,  by 
standing  a  little,  they  will  look  greener  than  good 
bohea.  Fourthly,  this  dyed  tea  is  generally  much 
larger ;  therefore  it  is  a  good  way  also  to  buy  the 
least  leaf  bohea.  Fifthly,  the  infusion,  which  should 
be  smooth  and  balsamic  to  the  palate,  tastes  rough 
and  more  harsh.  Sixthl}^,  if  milk  is  poured  into  it, 
it  will  rise  reddish  instead  of  a  dark  or  blackish 
brown.  Seventhl3\  a  little  sulphate  of  iron  put  into 
this  liquor,  will  turn  it  a  light  blue,  which  otherwise 
ought  to  be  of  a  deep  blue  inclining  to  black.  And 
eighthly,  water  of  ammonia  makes  the  good  tea  of  a 
deep  brownish  yellow,  after  it  lias  stood  awhile,  like 
new  drawn  tincture  of  saffron ;  but  it  has  not  that 
effect  on  bad  tea. 

Green  tea  is  also  counterfeited,  by  dying  bad  bo- 
hea with  green  vitriol.  But  this  is  also  easily  dis- 
covered: First,  if  a  bit  of  gall  is  put  into  the  infu- 
sion, it  will  turn  it  of  a  deep  black  colour ;  which  it 
would  not  do,  where  there  no  sulphate  of  iron  in  it, 
for  galls  do  not  tincture  tea  naturally.  Secondly,  if 
the  liquor  is  of  a  pale  green,  and  inclines  to  a  bluish 
dye,  it  is  bad.  Thirdly,  spirits  of  hartshorn  will 
majt^  it  of  a  purple  colour,  and  cause  a  slight  preci- 


BLACKING.  117 

pitatiou,  instead  of  a  deep  greenish  yellow,  when  it 
has  stood  for  about  six  minutes. 


BLACKING. 

BLACKING  BALLS  FOR  SHOES. 

Take  mutton  suet,  four  ounces ;  bees-wax,  one 
ounce ;  sweet  oil,  one  ounce ;  sugar  candy,  and  gum 
arabic,one  dram  each,  in  fine  powder;  melt  these  well 
together  over  a  gentle  fire,  and  add  thereto  about  a 
spoonful  of  turpentine,  and  lamp  black  sufficient  to 
give  it  a  good  black  colour.  While  hot  enough  to 
run,  make  it  into  a  ball,  by  pouring  the  liquid  into 
a  tin  mould ;  or  let  it  stand  till  almost  cold  ;  or  it  may 
be  moulded  by  the  hand. 

LIQUm  JAPAN  BLACKING. 

Take  three  ounces  of  ivory  black,  two  ounces  of 
coarse  sugar,  one  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid,  one  ounce 
of  muriatic  acid,  one  lemon,  one  table  spoon  full  of 
sweet  oil,  and  one  pint  of  vinegar.  First  mix  the 
ivory  black  and  sweet  oil  together,  then  the  lemon 
and  sugar,  with  a  little  vinegar  to  qualify  the  black- 
ing ;  then  add  the  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids,  and 
mix  them  all  well  together. 

Observation.  The  sugar,  oil,  and  vinegar,  prevent 
the  acids  from  injuring  the  leather,  and  add  to  the 
lustre  of  the  blacking. 

CHEAP  METHOD. 

Ivory  black,  two  ounces  ;  brown  sugar,  one  ounce 
and  a  half;  and  sweet  oil,  half  a  table  spoon  full. — 


118  BUTTER. 

Mix  them  well,  and  then  gradually  add  half  a  pint  of 
small  beer^ 

ANOTHER  METHOD. 

A  quarter  of  a  pound  of  ivory  black,  a  (quarter  of 
a  pound  of  moist  sugar,  a  table  spoonful  of  flour,  a 
piece  of  tallow  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  a 
small  piece  of  gum  arable :  make  a  paste  of  the  flour, 
and  whilst  hot  put  in  the  tallow,  then  the  sugar,  and 
afterwards  mix  the  whole  well  together  in  a  quart  of 
water. 

BUTTER. 

SUCCESSFirL  METHOD  OF  CUllING  BUTrEH, 

AS  PRACTISED  IN  SCOTLAXD. 

It  is  well  known,  that  butter,  as  it  is  generally 
cured,  does  not  keep  for  any  length  of  time,  without 
spoiling  or  becoming  rancicL  The  butter  with  which 
the  metropolis  is  supplied,  may  be  seen  at  every 
cheese-mongers,  in  the  greatest  variety  of  qualily 
and  colour ;  and  it  is  too  often  the  case,  that  even 
the  worst  butter  is  compounded  with  better  sorts,  in 
order  to  procure  a  sale.  These  practices  are  detest- 
able, and  should  be  discountenanced  by  the  legisla- 
ture. Indeed,  no  butter  should  be  j)ermitted  to  be 
sold,  but  such  as  is  of  the  best  quality  when  fresh, 
and  well  cured  when  salted  ;  as  there  is  hardly  any 
article  more  capable  of  exciting  disgust  than  bad 
butter. 

But  to  obtain  a  reform  in  this  matter,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  commence  v.  ilh  the  practices  of  .the  dairy  ; 
and  the  following  i}rocess  is  recommended  as  the 


BUTTER.  119 

best  at  present  known.  Reduce  separately  to  fine 
powder  in  a  dry  mortar,  two  pounds  of  best,  or 
whitest  common  salt ;  one  pound  of  salt-petre ;  and 
one  pound  of  lump  sugar.  Sift  these  ingredients^ 
one  above  another  on  two  sheets  of  paper  joined  to- 
gether ;  and  then  mix  them  well  with  the  liands,  or 
with  a  spatula.  Now  preserv  e  the  whole  in  a  cover- 
ed jar  placed  in  a  dry  situation.  When  required  to 
be  used,  one  ounce  of  this  composition  is  to  be  pro- 
portioned to  every  pound  of  butter  and  the  whole  is 
to  be  well  v/orked  into  the  mass.  The  butter  is  to 
be  be  packed  in  casks,  &c.  in  the  usual  way, 

Observalions.  The  above  method  is  practised  in 
many  parts  of  Scotland  ;  and  is  found  to  preserve  the 
butter  much  better,  than  by  using  common  salt 
alone.  If  butter  made  at  one  time  be  divided  into 
two  parts,  and  one  be  salted  in  the  common  way, 
whilst  the  mixture  above  mentioned  is  worked  into 
the  other,  the  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  two, 
will  be  found  to  be  beyond  all  conception.  The  but- 
ter cured  with  this  mixture  appears  of  a  rich  mar- 
rowy consistence  and  fine  colour,  and  never  acquires 
a  brittle  hardness,  nor  tastes  salt ;  the  other  will  be 
comparatively  hard  and  brittle,  approaching  more 
nearly  to  the  appearance  of  tallow,  and  is  much  Salter 
to  the  taste.  Butter  cured  by  the  above  composition 
has  been  kept  three  years,  and  was  as  sweet  as  at 
first ;  but  it  must  be  noted,  that  butter  thus  cured 
requires  to  stand  at  least  three  weeks  or  a  month  be- 
fore it  is  used.  If  it  be  sooner  opened,  the  salts  are 
not  sufficiently  blended  with  it,  and  sometimes  the 
coolness  of  the  nitre  will  then  be  percieved,  which 
totally  disappears  afterwards. 


120  CHEESE. 

One  more  observation  on  the  preservation  of  but- 
ter is  necessary.  It  is  universally  allowed  that 
cleanliness  is  indispensible,  but  it  is  not  generally 
suspected,  that  butter  from  being  made  in  vessels  or 
troughs  lined  with  lead,  or  in  glazed  earthenware 
pans,  (which  glaze  is  principally  composed  of  lead,) 
is  too  apt  to  be  contaminated  by  particles  of  that 
deleterious  metal.  If  the  butter  is  in  the  least  de- 
gree rancid,  this  can  hardly  fail  to  take  place,  and  it 
cannot  be  doubted,  that  during  the  decomposition  of 
the  salts,  the  glazing  is  acted  on.  It  is  better,  there- 
fore, to  use  tinned  vessels  for  mixing  the  preserva- 
tive with  the  butter,  and  to  pack  it  either  in  wooden 
vessels,  or  in  jars  of  stone,  which,  vitrified  through- 
out, do  not  require  an  inside  glazing. 

CHEESE. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  PARMESAN  CHEESE. 

This  cheese  has  long  been  famous  for  its  richness 
and  flavour ;  the  following  mode  of  manufacture  is 
described  in  the  Annals  de  Chimie.  The  size  of 
these  cheeses  varies  from  60  to  180  pounds,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  cows  in  each  dairy.  During 
the  heat  of  summer,  cheese  is  made  every  day,  but 
in  the  cooler  months,  milk  Avill  keep  longer,  and  the 
cheese  is  made  every  other  day.  The  summer 
cheese,  which  is  the  best,  is  made  of  the  evening 
milk,  after  having  been  skinnned  in  the  morning  and 
at  noon.  Both  kinds  of  milk  are  poured  together 
into  a  cauldron  capable  of  holding  about  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  gallons,  of  the  shape  of  an  inverted 


CHEESE.      .  l^l 

bell,  and  suspended  on  the  arm  of  a  lever,  so  as  to 
be  moved  off  and  on  the  fire  at  pleasure.  In  this 
cauldron  the  milk  is  gradually  heated  to  the  temper- 
ature of  about  120° ;  it  is  now  removed  from  the 
fire,  and  kept  quiet  for  five  or  six  minutes.  When 
all  internal  motion  has  ceased,  the  rennet  is  then  ad- 
ded, this  substance  is  composed  of  the  stomach  of  a 
calf,  fermented  together  with  wheaten  meal  and  salt ; 
and  the  method  of  using  it,  is,  to  tie  a  piece  of  the  size 
of  hazle  nut  in  a  rag,  and  steep  it  in  the  milk, 
squeezing  it  from  time  to  time.  In  a  short  time,  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  rennet  passes  through  the  rag 
into  the  milk,  which  is  now  to  be  well  strained,  and 
afterwards  left  to  rest  that  it  may  coagulate.  In 
about  an  hour  the  coagulation  is  complete,  and  then 
the  milk  isagain  put  over  the  fire  and  raised  to  a 
temperature  of  about  145  degrees. 

During  all  the  time  it  is  heating,  the  mass  is  brisk- 
ly agitated,  till  the  curd  separates  in  small  lumps ; 
part  of  the  whey  is  then  taken  out,  and  a  small  por- 
tion of  saffron  is  added  to  the  remainder  to  colour  it. 
When  the  curd  is  thus  broken  sufficiently  small, 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  whey  is  taken  out,  and  two 
pailfuls  of  cold  water  is  poured  in,  the  temperature 
is  thus  lowered,  so  as  to  enable  the  dairy-man  to  col- 
lect the  curd,  by  passing  a  cloth  beneath  it,  and 
gathering  it  up  at  the  corners ;  the  curd  is  now  pres- 
sed into  a  frame  of  wood  like  a  bushel  without  a 
bottom,  placed  on  a  solid  table,  and  covered  by  a 
round  piece  of  wood,  having  a  great  stone  or  weight 
on  the  top.  In  the  course  of  the  night  it  cools,  as- 
sumes a  firm  consistence,  and  parts  with  the  whey ; 
the  next  day  one  side  is  rubbed  with  salt,  and  the 

16 


122  CIDER. 

succeeding  day  the  cheese  is  turned,  and  the  other  side 
then  rubbed  with  salt  in  the  same  manner  as  before. 
Tliis  alternate  salting  of  each  side  is  practised  for 
about  forty  days;  after  this  period,  the  outer  crust 
of  the  cheese  is  pared  off,  and  the  fresh  surface  is 
varnished  with  linseed  oil.  The  convex  sides  are 
then  coloured  red  with  arnotto,  and  the  cheese  is  fit 
for  sale. 

CIDER.  > 

The  process  of  making  cider  is  so  simple,  so  gen- 
erally practised,  and  considered  to  be  so  well  un- 
derstood in  every  part  of  the  United  States,  that 
any  observations  on  the  subject  would  seem  to 
be  almost  superfluous.  Unfortunately,  however,  this 
very  simplicity  and  general  knoAvledge  of  the  opera- 
tion tends  to  ruin  three  fourths  of  the  cider  that  is 
made. 

The  increase  of  orchards,  and  the  real  value  of 
cider  itself,  has  rendered  it  an  article  of  considerable 
importance,  not  only  as  an  object  of  commerce,  but 
as  a  valuable  beverage  for  home  consumption.  To 
the  farmer  himself,  a  mug  of  sweet  cider  is  frequent- 
ly considered  as  a  great  luxury ;  and  by  labourers  it 
is  preferred,  by  way  of  breakfast,  to  tea,  coffee,  or 
milk ;  and  in  the  harvest  field,  to  the  more  intoxicat- 
ing liquors  generally  prepared  for  them. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  this  great  utility  and  general 
use  of  cider,  how  seldom  do  we  find  it,  among  the 
majority  of  farmers,  fit  to  drink  in  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary, To  what  cause  1*an  this  be  attributed,  when, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  sometimes  find  cider  that  has 


CIDER.  12* 

retained  its  original  flavour  and  sweetness  foreighteen 
months  ? 

An  exposition  of  the  causes,  the  method  of  avoid- 
ing them,  and  some  directions  for  keeping  cider,  we 
trust  will  not  be  deemed  improper,  and  may  possibly 
lead  to  some  improvement  in  tliis  subject,  so  impor- 
tant to  the  community. 

In  the  first  place,  the  mill  is  not  perfectly  cleaned^ 
previously  to  grinding  the  apples ;  next,  the  apples 
are  picked  green,  ripe,  and  rotten,  as  it  may  happen, 
and  together  with  a  quantity  of  grass  and  leaves,  are 
all  ground  up ;  and  lastly,  the  liquor  without  strain- 
ing, (and  consequently  with  a  good  deal  of  pomage 
in  it,)  is  put  into  dirty  casks,  the  bung  being  loosely 
stopped  with  straw,  and  rolled  away  into  the  cellar, 
where  no  further  attention  is  thought  necessary  until 
the  cider  is  wanted  for  use ;  when,  in  consequence 
of  this  very  improper  mode  of  treatment,  it  is  found 
perfectly  sour.  English  writers  on  this  subject  give 
a  great  many  directions,  but  as  they  all  require  more 
labour  than  we  can  command,  and  are  all  of  little  use 
in  this  country ;  the  time  for  making  keeping  cider, 
occuring  in  one  of  the  busiest  seasons  of  the  year, 
what,  however,  may  be  usefully  mentioned,  and 
agrees  with  our  experience,  are  the  following  direc- 
tions. 

That  the  apples  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
of  an  equal  degree  of  ripeness ;  and  if  not  perfectly 
ripe  when  gathered,  should  be  put  in  a  heap  for  a 
few  days  to  mellow.*    When  ground,  care  should 

•  The  farmer  'would  even  find  an  advantage  in  throwing;  out  all  the  bitter 
unripe,  and  rotten  a])pleE,  and  the  whole  process  should  be  Ccirried  on  under 
cover. 


124  eiDBR. 

be    taken    that   every    thing    be    perfectly  clean. 
and  the   straw  used  in  making  the  cheese  should 
be    free    from    must    or    any    disagreeable    smell 
which  might  be  imparted  to  the  cider.     The  pom- 
age    should  remain  from    twelve  to  twenty   four 
hours  after  grinding,  before  it  is  pressed ;  the  cider 
must  be  carefully  strained,  and  put  into  clean  casks, 
avoiding  new  ones,  unless  made  of  perfectly  season- 
ed wood,  or  such  as  have  had  any  liquid  in  them 
which  might  flavour  the  cider.     Here  may  be  found 
the  grand  stumbling  block  of  most  farmers.     When 
a  cask  of  cider  is  run  out,  there  will  generally  be 
left  a  few  gallons  of  lees  ;  the  bung  and  spigot  hole 
are  left  open,  and  in  this  situation  it  frequently  re- 
mains until  the  next  cider  season,  when,  after  a  few 
scaldings,  which  are  of  little  effect,  it  is  filled  with 
fresh  cider ;  the  inevitable  consequence  is,  the  cider 
will  become  sour.     To  avoid  this,  so  soon  as  a  cask 
is  out,  it  should  be  completely  emptied,  and  scalded 
perfectly   clean,  or  well  washed  with  lime  water, 
dried,  and  bunged  up  close ;  it  will  then  be  found 
sweet  when  wanted.   Much  has  been  said  in  favour  of 
racking  off  cider  frequently,  and  though  I  am  iniwill- 
ing  to  differ  from  the  high  authorities  upon  which  it 
is  recommended,  as  the  result  of  various  experiments, 
yet  I  cannot  but  offer  a  few  remarks  on  the  subject. 
When  cider  is  made  late  in  the  season,  so  as  to  un- 
dergo a  slight  fermentation,  sufficient  however  to 
give  it  an  agreeable  vinosity,  it  ma}'  become  a  ques- 
tion, whether  by  suffering  it  to  remain  on  the  lees, 
they  do  not  aflbrd  a  kind  oi  feed,  by  which  it  retains 
its  strength  and  vinosity  longer  than  it  otherwise 
would  do  ? 


CIDER.  12a 

This  however  is  more  particularly  applicable  to 
cider  for  immediate  use,  it  certainly  being  proper  to 
rack  oif  from  the  lees,  that  which  is  meant  for  keep- 
ing, sometime  in  the  month  of  March,  when   the 
weather  is  too  cold  for  fermentation,  to  which  it  is 
liable  upon  being  agitated.     It  is  also  worthy  of  at- 
tention, whether  cider  racked  off  upon  the  subsiding 
of  the  first  fermentation,  which  has  been  slight,  does 
not  immediately  undergo  another  fermentation ;  (in 
consequence  of  the  agitation  and  mixture  of  the  fer- 
mentalDle  principle  which  subsides  with  the  lees,) 
which  although  almost  imperceptible,  in  a  short  time 
renders  the  cider  sour.    Especial  care  must  be  taken 
to  fill  the  barrel  to  the  very  top  of  the  bung  hole,  at 
the  last  racking,  that  if  any  light  or  flying  lees  re- 
main on  the  liquor,  they  may  be  removed  at  the  bung 
hole,  for  this  is  frequently  the  case  with  mellow  ci- 
der; and  if  those  lees  are  permitted  to  remain  in  it, 
the  surface  by  being  exposed  to  the  air,  will  become 
sour.     That  tartness  will  by  degrees  render  all  the 
cider  of  the  same  complexion.     Yet,  the  taint  may 
be  perceived  to  descend  gradually;    for  while  the 
cider  is  sour  at  the  top,  it  is  sound  a  few  inches  be- 
low it,  till  it  descends  from  top  to  bottom.     This  is 
the  grand  point  in  which  people  are  wont  to  be  de- 
ceived, and  by  which  they  are  rendered  out  of  hu- 
mour with  racking  of  cider,  how  much  soever  they 
are  pleased  with  it,  when  it  happens  to  answer  their 
wishes.     When  their  cider  turns  sour,  they  imagine 
that  racking  takes  away  the  spirit  of  it,  and  that  then  it 
must  become  sour  of  course,  for  want  of  a  body,  as  they 
are  wont  to  speak ;  whereas  in  truth,  it  grows  sour 
for  want  of  skill  how  to  secure  it  after  the  last  rack- 


126  CIDER. 

ing,  by  removing  the  light  lees  which  swim  on  the 
top,  before  they  acquire  the  least  degree  of  acidity. 

The  commencement  of  acidity  may  be  known  by 
a  singing  or  hissing  noise ;  this  should  be  immedi- 
ately attended  to,  and  probably  the  most  effectual 
and  certain  remedy,  will  be  an  addition  of  a  small 
portion  of  high  proof  spirit,*  and  the  bunging  of  the 
cask  tight.  Cider  put  into  the  cellar  so  soon  as 
made,  generally  undergoes  too  great  a  fermentation. 
To  prevent  this  when  it  is  late  in  the  season,  the 
cask  should  be  placed  in  the  north  side  of  a  house, 
and  completely  protected  from  the  sun ;  the  warmth 
of  the  day  disposes  the  cider  to  ferment,  but  the 
coldness  of  the  night  so  far  checks  this  disposition, 
that  only  a  slight  yet  a  complete  vinous  fermentatioa 
takes  place. 

When,  however,  this  is  completely  stopped  by  the 
increased  coldness  of  the  Aveathcr,  and  before  it 
freezes,  the  cider  should  be  drawn  off  into  casks 
placed  in  the  cellar ;  about  one  gallo^i  of  spirit  added 
to  each  hogshead ;  the  casks  then  being  closely  bung- 
ed, no  further  fermentation  will  take  place.  This 
change  of  temperature  is  a  powerful  opponent  to 
fermentation.  But  strong  sweet  cider,  put  into  a  cel- 
lar where  there  is  a  constant  uniformity  of  tempera- 
ture, even  though  it  be  very  cool,  will  almost  certain- 
ly ferment^  and  the  fermentative  jiriiiciple  once  com- 
pletely in  action,  can  scarcely  bo  stopped,  but  by  a 
very  great  increase  of  cold.  I  am  well  aware  that 
the  ideas  here  advanced  as  to  the  necessity  of  clean- 

*  Columbian  Whiskey  or  Wheal  Spirit  will  be  fonnd  fo  answer  the  best 
purpose.  As  Wine  Vinegar  is  frequently  added  to  Brandies,  &c.,  which; 
WOtiJ.d  be.  spre  to  injure  the  Cider. 


ciDEii.  127 

liness,  in  every  part  of  the  operation,  but  particularly 
in  the  casks,  will  be  ridiculed  by  many  ;  having  ex- 
perienced the  fact,  that  very  fine  cider  has  been  pro- 
duced where  no  further  pains  Avere  taken  by  the 
owner,  than  to  order  an  old  negro  with  two  or  three 
boj^s,  "  to  make  the  cider,"  and  the  casks  were  pro- 
bably only  washed  with  a  little  cold  water.  This 
however  might  only  happen  once  in  half  a  dozen 
years,  and  should  be  regarded  as  an  accidental  oc- 
currence of  circumstances,  probably  beyond  the  art 
of  man  to  elucidate.  It  is  an  exception  to  a  general 
rule,  as  in  direct  opposition  to  theory  and  correct 
principles  ;  such  accidental  circumstances,  therefore^ 
should  not  be  regarded  by  the  man  who  wishes  to 
act  according  to  system. 

When  cider  is  wanted  for  making  wine  or  any  par- 
ticular use,  the  last  running  from  a  pressing  should 
be  taken,  as  this  will  be  found  more  pure  and  per- 
fectly free  from  pomage. 

RECEIPT  TO  MAKE  CTDER, 

AGREEAELT  TO  THE  PLAN  PRACTISED  IN  IRELAZVD. 

After  the  apples  are  bruised  and  pressed  in  the 
usual  manner,  the  juice  should  be  immediately  put 
into  large  open  vessels,  and  suffered  to  remain  in  this 
situation  from  twent3--four  to  fortj-eight  hours,  in 
order  to  deposit  any  crude  matter  which  may  have 
passed  through  the  bag ;  and  also  to  throw  up  the 
lighter  particles  in  the  form  of  scum,  which  should 
be  carefully  removed  ;  the  liquor  is  then  to  be  drawn 
off  and  passed  through  a  double  flannel  bag,  remov- 
ing the  feculent  matter  by  occasionally  turning  and 
rinsing  it.     When  thus  prepared,  put  two  or  tliree 


128  CIDER. 

gallons  into  a  strong  well  bound  cask,  in  which 
matches,  (made  by  dipping  linen  rags  in  melted  sul- 
phur,) are  to  be  lighted  and  suspended  from  the  bung 
hole  by  means  of  iron  wire,  and  the  bung  lightly  put  in, 
fresh  portions  of  match  must  be  added  until  they  cease 
to  burn  on  their  being  introduced  into  the  cask,  which 
should  now  be  violently  agitated  for  the  purpose  of 
assisting  the  absorption  of  sulphurous  gas.  After 
standing  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  draw  it  off  into  a  tub, 
the  cock  and  bung  being  left  open,  that  the  light  un- 
absorbed  gas  may  be  suffered  to  escape ;  after  re- 
maining in  this  situation  for  about  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes,  the  operation  must  be  repeated  five  or  six 
times,  with  a  like  quantity  of  fresh  liquor  each  time ; 
return  the  different  portions  into  the  cask,  and  fill  it 
up  with  filtered  liquor ;  put  a  quart  of  spirits  to  every 
forty  gallons,  and  insert  the  bung  in  the  firmest  and 
closest  manner,  so  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of 
the  internal  air  forcing  a  passage  should  it  be  dispos- 
ed to  ferment. 

Observations.  If  the  cider  does  not  fine  in  three 
or  four  weeks,  (which  good  cider  almost  always  will,) 
add  the  whites  of  fifteen  eggs,  beat  fine  with  a  gill  of 
clean  sand  to  every  hundred  gallons. 

Cider  can  be  bottled  to  advantage  in  any  month  in 
the  year,  when  properly  fined,  when  intended  for 
home  use,  and  required  to  be  brisk,  and  sparkling,  it 
should  be  bottled  iu  the  months  of  March,  April  and 
May;  when  intended  for  exportation,  it  should  be 
bottled  later ;  the  better  to  prevent  breakage  it  should 
also  be  wired  to  be  exported. 


PAINTINGS  RESTbRED.  129 


RATIONALE. 


Sulphurous  acid,  which  is  formed  by  burning  sul- 
phur in  confined  portions  of  atmospheric  air,  has  the 
well  known  property  of  checking  fermentation,  so  that 
if  the  fresh  juices  of  fruit  be  impregnated  with  this  acid, 
it  causes  a  suspension  of  the  vinous  fermentation,  until 
sufficient  time  is  afforded  for  the  forming  of  the  li- 
quor, which  on  its  being  bottled,  gradually  ferments, 
and  causes  it  to  assume  that  fine  sparkling  appearance 
met  with  in  English  cider.  In  common  sour  cider, 
the  fermentation  has  proceeded  through  the  vinous 
to  the  acetous,  and  consequently  in  a  state  nearly  ap- 
proaching to  vinegar. 

In  the  mode  usually  practised,  in  making  cider,  in 
imitation  of  English ;  the  fresh  juice  is  at  first  put 
into  the  cask,  and  the  whole  drawn  off  when  it  shews 
signs  of  fermentation,  the  casks  stoved  with  sulphur 
match,  and  the  liquor  immediately  returned ;  racking 
off,  and  stoving  it  until  it  ceases  to  exhibit  a  disposition 
to  ferment,  which  tedious  process  usually  takes  about 
six  weeks, but  which  maybe  advantageously  shorten- 
ed by  the  substitution  of  sulphur  matches,  in  larger 
proportions  as  before  directed ;  so  as  to  impregnate 
the  liquor  with  sulphurous  gas. 


WHITE  COLOURS  IN  PAINTINGS  RESTORED, 

BY  OXTGESATED  WATER. 

A  French  painter,  of  the  name  of  Merimee,  having 
obsen  ed,  in  a  design  by  Raphael,  that  the  lights  had 
lost  their  brightness,  applied  to  M.  Thenard  for  his 
advice.      This  chemist  ascribed  the  effect  to  the 

17 


130  BLEACHING. 

circumstance,  that  the  white  lead  dissolved  in  water 
had  become  sulphuretted  by  the  lapse  of  time,  and 
had  been  changed  from  white  to  black.  According- 
ly, he  sent  to  M.  Merimee  some  slighty  oxygenated 
water,  which  was  applied  to  the  black  parts,  and 
the  white  colour  was  instantly  restored.  The  water 
contained  only  five  or  six  times  its  volume  of  oxy- 
gen. 

TO  RESTORE  THE  LUSTRE  OF  GOLD  OR  SU.VER  LACE, 

WHEN  TARNISHED. 

When  gold  or  silver  lace  happens  to  be  tarnished, 
the  best  liquor  that  can  be  used  for  restoring  its 
lustre,  is  spirits  of  wine.  It  should  be  warmed  be- 
fore it  is  applied  to  the  tarnished  spot.  This  ap- 
plication will  preserve  the  colour  of  the  silk,  or  em- 
broidery. 

WHITENING  SILVER  BY  BOILING. 

Whitening  silver  by  boiling  is  one  of  the  methods 
of  parting  copper  from  silver  in  the  humid  way. — 
For  this  purpose,  silver  wrought  in  any  shape  is  first 
ignited  to  redness,  and  afterwards  boiled  in  a  ley  of 
muriate  of  soda,  and  acidulous  tartrite  of  potass.  By 
these  means  the  copper  is  removed  from  the  surface 
and  the  silver  receives  a  better  appearance. 

METHOD  OF  CLEANING  SILKS,  WOOLENS,  AND  COTTONS, 

WITHOUT  DAMAGE  TO  THEIR  TEXTURE  OR  COLOUR. 

Grate  raw  potatoes  to  a  fine  pulp  in  clean  water, 
and  pass  the  liquid  matter,  through  a  coarse  sieve, 
into  another  vessel  of  water ;  let  the  mixture  stand 
still  till  the  fine  white  particles  of  the  potatoes  are 


SCOURING  BALLS.  1^1 

precipitated;  then  pour  the  mucilaginous  liquor  from 
the  fecula,  and  preserve  the  liquor  for  use.  1  he  ar- 
ticle to  be  cleaned  should  then  be  laid  upon  a  linen 
cloth  on  a  table,  and  having  provided  a  clean  sponge, 
dip  it  into  the  potatoe  liquor,  and  apply  it  to  the  arti- 
cle to  be  cleaned,  till  the  dirt  is  perfectly  separated, 
then  wash  it  in  clean  water  several  times.  Two  mid- 
dle sized  potatoes  will  be  sufficient  for  a  pint  of  water. 
Observations.  The  coarse  pulp,  which  does  not 
pass  through  the  sieve,  is  of  great  use  in  cleaning 
worsted  curtains,  tapestry,  carpets,  and  other  coarse 
goods.  The  mucilaginous  liquor  will  clean  all  sorts 
of  silk,  cotton,  or  woolen  goods,  without  hurting  or 
spoiling  the  colour,  it  may  be  also  used  in  cleaning 
oil  paintings,  or  furniture  that  is  soiled.  Dirtied 
painted  wainscots  may  be  cleaned  by  wetting  a  sponge 
in  the  liquor ;  then  dipping  it  in  a  little  fine  clean 
sand,  and  afterwards  rubbing  the  wainscot  with  it. 

SCOURING    BALLS. 

Portable  balls  for  removing  spots  from  clothes, 
may  be  thus  prepared.  Fuller's  earth  perfectly 
dried,  (so  that  it  crumbles  into  a  powder)  is  to  be 
moistened  with  the  clear  juice  of  lemons,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  pure  pearl-ashes  is  to  be  added.  Knead 
the  whole  carefully  together,  till  it  acquires  the  con- 
sistence of  a  thick  elastic  paste  :  form  it  into  conven- 
ient small  balls,  and  dry  them  in  the  sun.  To  be 
used,  first  moisten  the  spot  on  the  clothes  with  water, 
then  rub  it  with  the  ball,  and  let  the  spot  dry  in  the 
sun ;  after  having  washed  it  with  pure  water  the  spot 
will  entirely  disappear. 


J32  MAHOGANT. 

METHOD  OF  SEASONING  MAHOGANT. 

This  method,  which  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Cal- 
lender,  and  for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  the  Socie- 
ty of  Arts,  is  both  simple  and  efficacious. 

Having  provided  a  steam-tight  wooden  box,  capa- 
ble of  holding  conveniently  such  pieces  of  mahogany 
as  are  fit  for  chairs,  &c.,  he  adapts  to  it  a  pipe  from 
a  boiler,  by  means  of  which  he  fills  the  box  (after 
the  mahogany  has  been  put  into  it,)  with  steam,  the 
temperature  of  which  is  about  equal  to  that  of  boiling 
water.  The  time  required  for  wood,  an  inch  and  a 
half  thick,  is  about  two  hours ;  and  pieces  of  this 
thickness  are  stated  to  become  sufficiently  dry  to 
work,  after  being  placed  in  a  warm  room  or  work- 
shop for  twenty-four  hours.  By  this  treatment,  the 
wood  is  something  improved  in  its  general  colour ; 
and  those  blemishes,  which  are  technically  called 
green  vems»  are  entirely  removed.  The  eggs  or 
larvae,  also,  of  any  insect,  which  may  be  contained 
in  the  wood,  will  he  destroyed  by  the  (leat  of  the 
steam. 

Observations.  Two  very  important  advantages 
are  said  to  result  from  Mr.  Callender's  process.  In 
the  first  place,  a  considerable  part  oj  the  capital, 
which  is  vested  in  wood  lying  to  season  during  many 
months  may  be  saved.  And  secondly,  as  none  of  the 
small  wood,  from  two  to  six  inches  thick,  is  ever 
seasoned,  according  to  the  usual  course  of  trade, 
chairs,  ballustrades,  and  similar  articles,  which  are 
usually  made  of  such  w  ood,  must  necessarily  be  verj^ 
subject  to  warp,  which  inconvenience  is  prevented 
by  adopting  the  expeditious  mode  of  seasoning  above 
described. 


SAIL-CLOTH.  133 

MODE  OF  PAINTING    SAIL-CLOTH,  &C. 
so  AS  TO   BE   PLIAKT,   DrRABLE,  AND   IMPERVIorS   TO   WATER. 

This  process  which  is  extracted  from  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Society  of  jlrts,  is  now  universally 
practised  in  the  public  dock-yards  in  England. 

The  paint  usually  laid  upon  canvas,  hardens  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  crack,  and  eventually  to  break 
the  canvas,  which  renders  it  unserviceable  in  a  short 
time ;  but  the  canvas  painted  in  the  new  manner  is 
so  superior,  that  all  canvas  used  in  the  navy  is  thus 
prepared ;  and  a  saving  of  a  guinea  is  made  in  every 
one  hundred  square  yards  of  canvas  so  painted. 

The  old  mode  of  painting  canvas  was  to  wet  the 
canvas,  and  prime  it  with  Spanish  brown  ;  then  to 
give  it  a  second  coat  of  a  chocolate  colour,  made  by 
mixing  Spanish  brown  and  black  paint ;  and  lastly  to 
finish  it  with  black. 

The  new  method  is  to  grind  96  pounds  of  English 
ochre  with  boiled  oil,  and  to  add  16  pounds  of  black 
paint,  which  mixture  forms  an  indifferent  black.  A 
pound  of  yellow  soap  dissolved  in  six  pints  of  water 
over  the  fire,  is  mixed  while  hot  with  the  paint. — 
This  composition  is  then  laid  upon  the  canvas  (with- 
out being  wetted,  as  in  the  usual  way)  as  stiff  as  can 
conveniently  be  done  with  the  brush  so  as  to  form  a 
smooth  surface  ;  the  next  day,  or,  still  better,  on  the 
second  day,  a  second  coat  of  ochre  and  black  (with- 
out any,  or  but  a  very  small  portion  of  soap)  is  laid 
on,  and  allowing  this  coat  an  intermediate  day  for 
drying,  the  canvas  is  then  finished  with  black  paint 
as  usual.  Three  days  being  then  allowed  for  it  to 
dry  and  harden,  it  does  not  stick  together  when  taken 


134  VARNISHES. 

dovm,  and  folded  in  cloths  containing  sixty  or  seven- 
ty yards  each ;  and  canvas  finished  entirely  with  the 
composition,  leaving  it  to  dry  one  day  between  each 
coat,  will  not  stick  together  if  laid  in  quantities. 

Observations,  It  has  been  ascertained  from  actual 
trials,  that  the  solution  of  yellow  soap  is  a  preserva- 
tive to  red,  yellow,  and  black  paints,  when  ground  in 
oil  and  put  into  casks,  as  they  acquire  no  improper 
hardness,  and  dry  in  a  remarkable  manner  when  laid 
on  with  the  brush,  without  the  use  of  the  usual  dry- 
ing articles. 

It  is  surprising  that  the  adoption  of  soap,  which  is 
so  well  known  to  be  miscible  with  oily  substances,  or 
at  least  the  alkali  of  which  it  is  composed,  has  not 
already  been  brought  into  use  in  the  composition  of 
oil  colours. 

VARNISH  FOR  BOOTS  AND  SHOES, 

BY  WHICH  THET  ARE  RBND£RED  IMPERVIOUS  TO  WATER. 

The  following  method  of  effecting  this  useful  pur- 
pose is  related  in  Sir  John  Hawkin's  edition  of  Isaac 
Walton's  complete  angler. 

Take  a  pint  of  linseed  oil,  with  half  a  pound  of 
mutton  suet,  six  or  eight  ounces  of  bees'  wax,  ami  a  • 
small  piece  of  rosin.  Boil  all  this  in  a  pipkin  togeth- 
er; and  let  it  cool  till  it  be  miik-Avarm.  Then  with  a 
hair  brushy  lay  it  on  new  boots,  or  shoes  ;  but  it  is  best 
that  this  varnish  be  laid  on  the  leather,  before  the 
boots  are  made.  The  boots  should  also  be  brushed 
over  with  it,  after  they  come  from  the  maker.  If  old 
boots  or  shoes  are  to  be  varnished,  the  mixture  is  to 
be  laid  on,  when  the  leather  is  perfectly  dry. 


VARNISHES,  135 

METHOD    OF     VARNISHING    HATS, 

so  AS  TO  BE  IMPERVIOUS  TO  WATER. 

A  patent  has  lately  been  taken  out  by  Messrs. 
Pritchard  and  Franks,  for  the  following  mode  of 
rendering  hats  impervious  to  water.  It  must  be  pre- 
mised, that  the  follow^ing  list  of  ingredient?  i&  so  re- 
dundant, as  not  to  admit  of  application,  either  with 
success,  or  with  advantage  as  to  economy.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  mark  in  italics,  such  ingredi- 
ents as  may  with  propriety  be  omitted  in  the  compo- 
sition ;  bearing  in  mind  at  the  same  time,  that  the 
quantity  of  alcohol  is  also  to  be  reduced. 

The  shell  of  the  hat  is  to  be  prepared  of  the  usual 
materials,  and  dyed  and  formed  into  shape  in  the 
usual  way.  When  perfectly  dry,  it  is  to  be  stiffened 
with  the  following  composition,  worked  upon  the  in- 
ner surface : — One  pound  of  gum  kino,  eight  ounces 
of  gum  elemi,  three  pounds  of  gum  olibanum,  three 
pounds  of  gum  copal,  two  pounds  oi  gum  juniper,  one 
pound  oi  gum  ladanum,  one  pound  of  gum  mastic,  ten 
pounds  of  shell-lac,  and  eight  oiinces  of  frankincense ; 
these  are  pounded  small  and  mixed  together ;  three 
gallons  of  alcohol  are  then  placed  in  an  earthen  vessel, 
"^to  receive  the  pounded  gums ;  the  vessel  is  then  to 
be  frequently  agitated. 

When  the  gums  are  sufficiently  dissolved  by  this 
process,  the  patentees  add  to  the  mixture,  one  pint 
of  liquid  ammonia,  and  one  ounce  of  oil  of  lavender 
with  a  pound  of  gum  myrrh  and  gum  opoponax,  dis- 
solved in  three  pints  of  spirit  of  wine.  The  whole 
of  the  •  ingredients  being  perfectly  incorporated,  and 
free  from  lumps,  constitute  the  water-proof  mixture 
with  which  the  shell  of  the  hat  is  stiffened. 


136  VARJ^ISHES. 

When  the  shell  has  been  dyed,  shaped,  and  ren- 
dered perfectly  dry,  its  inner  surface  and  the  under 
side  of  the  brim  are  varnished  with  this  composition 
by  means  of  a  brush.  The  hat  is  then  to  be  placed 
in  a  warm  drying  room  until  hard.  This  process  is 
repeated  several  times,  taking  care  that  the  varnish 
does  not  penetrate  through  the  shell,  so  as  to  appear 
on  the  outer  side.  To  allow  the  perspiration  of  the 
head  to  evaporate,  small  holes  are  to  be  pierced 
through  the  crown  of  the  hat  from  the  inside  out- 
ward ;  and  the  nap  of  silk,  beaver,  or  other  fur,  is  to 
be  laid  on  by  the  finisher  in  the  usual  way ;  that  on 
the  under  side  of  the  brim,  which  has  been  prepared 
as  above,  is  to  be  attached  with  copal  varnish. 

EXCELLENT  VARNISH  FOR  SILKS,  &C. 

To  one  quart  of  cold-drawn  linseed  oil,  poured  off 
from  the  lees  (produced  on  the  addition  of  unslacked 
lime,  on  which  the  oil  had  stood  eight  or  ten  days  at 
the  least,  in  order  to  communicate  a  drying  quality, 
or  brown  umber,  burnt  or  pounded  which  will  have 
the  like  effect,)  add  half  an  ounce  of  litharge  ;  boil 
them  for  half  an  hour,  then  add  half  an  ounce  of  the 
copal  varnish.  While  the  ingredients  are  on  the  fire, 
in  a  copper  vessel,  put  in  one  ounce  of  chios  turpen- 
tine or  common  rosin,  and  a  few  drops  of  neatsfoot 
oil,  and  stir  the  whole  with  a  knife,  when  cool  it  is 
ready  for  use.  The  neatsfoot  oil  prevents  the  var- 
nish from  being  sticky  or  adhesive,  and  may  be 
put  into  the  linseed  oil  at  the  same  time  with  the 
lime,  or  burnt  umber.  Resin  or  chios  turpentine 
may  be  added  till  the  varnish  has  attained  the  desired 
thickness. 


VARNISHES.  137 

Observations.  The  longer  the  raw  linseed  oil  re- 
mains on  the  unslacked  lime  or  umber,  the  sooner 
will  the  oil  dry  after  it  is  used ;  if  some  months,  so 
much  the  better ;  such  varnish  will  set,  that  is  to  say, 
not  run,  but  keep  its  place  on  the  silk  in  four  hours ; 
the  silk  may  then  be  turned  and  varnished  on  the 
other  side. 

PLIABLE  VARNISH  FOR  UMBRELLAS,  BALLOONS,  &C. 

Take  any  quantity  of  caoutchouc,  as  ten  or  twelve 
ounces,  cut  it  into  small  bits  with  a  pair  of  scissors, 
and  put  a  strong  iron  ladle  (such  as  painters,  plumb- 
ers, or  glaziers,  melt  their  lead  in,)  over  a  common 
pit-coal  fire;  which  must  be  gentle,  glowing,  and 
without  smoke.  When  the  ladle  is  hot,  put  a  single 
bit  into  it ;  if  black  smoke  issues,  it  will  presently 
flame  and  disappear,  or  it  will  evaporate  without 
flame :  the  ladle  is  then  too  hot.  When  the  ladle  is 
less  hot,  put  in  a  second  bit,  which  will  produce  a 
white  smoke  ;  this  white  smoke  will  continue  during 
the  operation,  and  evaporate  the  caoutchouc ;  there- 
fore no  time  is  to  be  lost,  but  little  bits  are  to  be  put 
in,  a  feAv  at  a  time,  till  the  whole  are  melted ;  it 
should  be  continually  and  gently  stirred  with  an  iron 
or  brass  spoon.  The  instant  the  smoke  changes 
from  white  to  black,  take  off  the  ladle,  or  the  whole 
will  break  out  into  a  violent  flame,  or  be  spoiled, 
or  lost.  Care  must  be  taken  that  no  water  be 
addedj  a  few  drops  only  of  which,  would,  on  account 
of  its  expansibilit}',  make  it  boil  over  furiously  and 
V,  ith  .great  noise  ;  at  this  period  of  the  process,  two 
pounds  or  one  quart  of  the  best  drying  oil  are  to  be 
put  into  the  melted  caoutchouc  and  stirred  tiil  hot, 

18 


138  VARNISHES. 

and  the  whole  poured  into  a  glazed  vessel  through  a 
coarse  gauze  or  wire  sieve.  When  settled  and  clear, 
which  will  be  in  a  few  minutes,  it  is  fit  for  use  either 
hot  or  cold. 

Observations.  The  silk  should  be  always  stretch- 
ed horizontally,  by  pins  or  tenter  hooks,  on  frames  ; 
(the  greater  they  are  in  length  the  better,)  and  the 
varnish  poured  on  cold,  in  hoi  weather,  and  hot,  in 
cold  weather.  It  is  perliaps  best,  always  to  lay  it  on 
when  cold.  The  art  of  laying  it  on  properly,  consists 
in  making  no  intestine  motion  in  the  varnish,  which 
would  create  minute  bubbles,  therefore  brushes  of 
every  kind  are  improper,  as  each  bubble  breaks  in 
drying,  and  forms  a  small  hole,  through  which  the 
air  will  transpire.  This  varnish  is  pliant,  unadhe- 
sive,  and  unalterable  by  weather,  whilst  it  is  perfect-- 
ly  impervious  to  air.  • 

VARNISH  USED  FOR  INDIAN  SHIELDS. 

Shields  made  at  Silhet,  in  Bengal,  are  noted 
throughout  India,  for  the  lustre  and  durability  of  the 
black  varnish  with  Avhich  they  are  covered ;  Silhet 
shields  constitute  therefore  no  inconsiderable  article 
of  traffic,  being  in  request  among  natives  who  carry 
arms  and  retain  the  ancient  predeliction  for  the  ci- 
metar  and  buckler.  The  varnish  is  composed  of  the 
expressed  juice  of  the  marking  nut  semecarpus  anac- 
ardium,  and  that  of  another  kindred  fruit,  holigara 
lonQ'ifolia. 

The  shell  of  the  semecarpus  anacardium  contains 
between  its  integuments,  numerous  cells,  fdled  with 
a  black,  acrid,  resinous  juice ;  wliich  likewise  is  found, 
though  less  abundantly,  in  the  wood  of  the  tree.     It 


VARNISHES.  139 

is  commonly  employed  as  an  indelible  ink,  to  mark 
all  sorts  of  cotton  cloth.  The  colour  is  fixed  with- 
lime.  The  cortical  part  of  the  fruit  of  holigarna 
longifolia  likewise  contains  between  its  laminae,  nu- 
merous cells,  filled  with  a  black,  thick>  acrid  fluid. 
The  natives  of  Malabar  (in  which  country,  as  well  as 
in  the  eastern  parts  of  Bengal,  the  tree  is  indigen- 
ous,) extract  by  incision  its  very  acrid  juice,  with 
which  they  varnish  targets.  Both  are  conbined  for 
the  same  purpose,  by  the  artizans  of  Silhet.  The 
juices  are  resinous,  being  soluble  in  alcohol  and  not 
at  all  so  in  water.  They  may  be  dissolved  in  fixed 
oils,  and  in  diluted  alkali. 

To  prepare  the  varnish  according  to  the  method 
practised  in  Silhet,  the  nuts  of  the  semecarpus  an- 
acardium,  and  the  berries  of  the  holigarna  longifolia, 
having  been  steeped  for  a  month  in  clear  water,  are 
cut  traversely,  and  pressed  in  a  mill.  The  expressed 
juice  of  each  is  kept  for  several  months,  taking  oft' 
the  scum  from  time  to  time.  Afterwards  the  liquor 
is  decanted,  and  two  parts  of  the  one  are  added  to 
one  part  of  the  other,  to  be  used  as  varnish.  Other 
proportions  of  ingredients  are  sometimes  employed; 
but  in  all,  the  resinous  juice  of  the  Semecarpus  pre- 
dominates. The  varnish  is  laid  on  hke  paint,  and 
when  dry  is  polished  by  rubbing  it  with  an  agate  or 
smooth  pebble.  This  varnish  also  prevents  destruc- 
tion of  wood,  &c.  by  the  white  ant. 

FRENCH    VARNISH    FOR    CABINETS,    &C. 

Take  shell-lac,  three  parts ;  gum  mastich,  one 
part ;  gum  sandarach,  one  part ;  alcohol,  forty  parts. 
The  mastich  and  sandarach  must  first  be  dissolved  in 


140  VARNISHES. 

the  alcohol,  and  then  the  shell-lac  :  this  may  be  done 
either  by  putting  them  in  a  bottle  loosely  corked, 
and  placing  it  in  a  vessel  of  water,  heated  below  the 
boiling  point  of  alcohol,  until  the  solution  is  effected ; 
or  by  putting  the  ingredients  into  a  clean  Florence 
oil-flask,  (the  neck  of  which  is  partially  closed  by  a 
cork,  having  a  narrow  slit  along  it,)  it  is  to  be  heated 
over  a  spirit-lamp.  The  alcohol  which  escapes  dur- 
ing the  process  must  be  replaced  by  an  equal  weight 
of  it,  after  the  operation  is  over ;  as  it  is  desireable 
that  the  varnish  should  consist  of  the  proportions 
given  in  order  to  be  good.  The  solution  may  be 
poured  off  for  use,  from  the  impurities  which  remain, 
but  it  must  not  be  filtered,  as  that  operation  would 
deprive  the  lac  of  some  of  its  qualities. 

Observation.  In  cases  where  a  greater  degree  of 
hardness  in  the  varnish  is  desireable,  and  its  colour 
is  but  a  secondary  consideration,  one  part  of  shell- 
lac  with  eight  parts  of  alcohol,  is  to  be  preferred. 

COPAL  VARNISH. 

Reduce  to  powder  an  ounce  of  pure  carbonate  of 
potass,  and  then  lay  it  before  the  fire,  till  it  becomes 
hot  and  dry,  In  this  state  put  it  into  a  pint  of  alco- 
hol, or  oil  of  turpentine.  All  the  watery  particles 
contained  in  the  oil  or  spirits,  will  be  absorbed  by 
the  alkali,  and  the  alcohol,  or  turpentine,  will  thus  be- 
come pure,  or  highl}*  rectified.  This  process  is 
called  alkalizing  these  solvents.  Now  put  the  tur- 
pentine or  spirits  into  a  vessel  with  two  ounces  of 
clear  dry  copal,  finely  pounded  and  sifted  ;  place  the 
vessel  in  warm  water ;  the  copal  will  be  soon  dis- 
solved. 


VARNISHES.  141 

Observations.  This  varnish,  which  is  principally 
applied  to  wood,  paste-board,  and  prints,  is  to  be  di- 
luted by  a  little  warm  oil  of  turpentine,  before  it  is 
used.  If  the  spirits  of  turpentine  be  alkalized  when 
the  copal  is  dissolving,  a  little  spirits  of  wine  should 
be  added,  and  if  the  spirits  of  wine  be  alkalized  when 
the  copal  is  dissolving,  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine 
should  be  added ;  the  sediment  of  the  varnish  will 
dry  on  the  silk  in  a  few  hours ;  the  thicker  the  var- 
nish, the  sooner  it  dries. 

VARNISH  FOR  OIL  PAINTINGS. 

Mix  six  ounces  of  pure  mastich  gum,  with  the  same 
quantity  of  pounded  glass,  and  introduce  the  com- 
pound into  a  bottle  containing  a  pint  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine ;  (treated  with  alkali  as  above.)  now  add  half  an 
ounce  of  camphor  bruised  in  a  mortar.  When  the 
mastich  is  dissolved,  put  in  an  ounce  of  Venice  tur- 
pentine, and  agitate  the  whole  till  the  turpentine  be 
perfectly  dissolved. 

Observations.  When  to  be  used,  this  varnish  must 
be  gently  poured  off  the  glass  sediment  at  the  bottom 
of  the  bottle  or  it  may  be  filtered  through  muslin. 
The  intention  of  using  ground  glass,  is  to  present  a 
greater  surface  of  mastich,  to  the  solvent,  by  throw- 
ing the  particles  as  much  apart  as  possible. 

LACQUER  OR  VARNISH  FOR  TIN  WARE. 

Put  three  ounces  of  seed-lac,  two  drams  of  the  sub- 
stance known  by  the  name  of  dragon's  blood,  {san- 
guis draconis)  and  one  ounce  of  tumeric  powder,  into 
a  pint  of  well  rectified  spirits.  Let  the  whole  re- 
main for  fourteen  days,  but  during  that  time,  agitate 


142  PYROLIGNEOUS  ACID. 

the  bottle  once  a  day  at  least.     When  properly  com- 
bined, strain  the  liquid  through  muslin. 

Observation.  This  varnish  is  called  a  lacquer  ;  it 
is  brushed  over  tin  ware  which  is  intended  to  imi- 
tate brass. 

LACQUER  FOR  BRASS  WORK. 

Put  into  a  pint  of  alcohol,  an  ounce  of  tume" 
der,  two  drams  of  arnotto,  and  two  dpffj^is  of 
agitate  during  seven  days,  and  filter  inip 
tie.     Now  add  three  ounces  of  clean  sec 
agitate  the  bottle  every  day  for  fourteen  days.     The 
mixture  will  now  be  known  as  lacquer  for  brass. 

Observations.  When  the  lacquer  is  used,  the 
pieces  of  brass,  if  large,  are  to  be  first  warmed  (so  as 
to  heat  the  hand)  and  the  varnish  is  to  be  applied  by 
a  brush ;  the  smaller  pieces  may  be  dipped  in  the 
varnish,  and  then  drained  by  holding  them  for  a  min- 
ute over  the  bottle.  This  varnish  when  applied  to 
rails  for  desks,  &c.,  has  a  most  beautiful  appearance, 
being  like  burnished  gold. 

PREPARATION    OF    PYROLIGNEOUS    ACID. 

Place  a  large  cast-iron  cylinder,  or  retort  (similar 
to  those  used  for  the  production  of  carburetted  hy- 
drogen gas,)  in  a  furnance,  so  that  it  may  receive  as 
much  heat,  all  round,  as  possible.  Ckie  end  of  this 
cylinder  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  open  and  shut, 
to  admit  wood  and  exclude  the  air. 

Oak  in  pieces  about  a  foot  in  length  is  to  be  put 
into  the  cylinder,  which  is  to  be  filled  as  full  as  pos- 
sible, without  being  wedged,  and  the  door  must  be 
shut  close  to  exclude  air ;  from  the  cylinder  let  a 


PYROUGNEOUS  ACID.  143 

worm  run  through  coid  water  to  condense  the  acid ; 
by  this  it  is  conveyed  to  a  large  cask  placed  on  one 
end  where  there  is  a  pipe  to  carry  it  from  that  to  two 
or  three  more ;  thus  it  is  completely  secured  from 
flynig  off  in  the  vaporous  state.  The  fire  is  now  to 
be  raised  to  a  great  heat,  sufficientl}-  powerful  to  con- 
vert the  wood  completely  into  charcoal.  When  the 
acid  ceases  to*come  over,  the  fire  is  to  be  taken  out- 
and  the  mass  of  wood  left  to  cool  in  the  confined 
state,  when  it  becomes  perfect  chjircoal.  In  the  first 
cask  tar  is  chiefly  contained  with  the  acid,  it  precip- 
itates to  the  bottom,  and  is  drawn  off  by  a  cock ;  it 
is  afterwards  boiled  in  an  iron  boiler  to  evaporate  the 
acid,  before  it  is  fit  for  use.  If  the  acid  is  not  strong 
enough,  it  is  put  into  large  square  vats  about  six 
inches  deep,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  large  sur- 
face, to  evaporate  a  part  of  the  water  contained  in 
the  acid  more  speedily  by  a  slow  heat.  These  vats 
are  bedded  on  sand  upon  the  top  of  a  brick  stove^ 
where  a  gentle  heat  is  applied ;  thus  it  may  be  pro- 
cured in  a  pretty  strong  state,- 

Observations,  At  the  recent  anniversay  of  the 
White-haven  Philosophical  Society,  two  specimens 
of  meat  cured  with  the  pyroligneous  acid  were  ex- 
hibited by  one  of  the  members.  They  were  prepar- 
ed on  the  7th  September,  1819.  One  had  been  hung 
up  at  home,  and  the  other  had  been  sent  out  by  a 
vessel  to  the  West  Indies,  to  try  the  effect  of  climate 
upon  it,  and  brought  back  on  the  return  of  the  ship 
to  that  port.  The}'  were  tasted  by  all  present,  and 
pronounced  to  be  perfectly  sweet,  fresh,  and  fit  for 
use,  after  a  lapse  of  fifteen  months. 

Besides  its  antiseptic  use.  this  acid  is  employed 


144  CURING  BEEF  AND  I'ORK. 

instead  of  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead)  by  the  cali- 
co printers,  to  make  their  acetate  of  alumine  or  iron 
liquor.  Though  it  is  not  sufficiently  pure  it  does 
well  enough  for  blacks,  browns,  drabs,  &c.  but  for 
yellows  or  reds,  it  is  not  so  good,  owing  to  the  oil  and 
tar  which  is  in  combination  with  it. 

ENGLISH    METHOD    OF    CURING    BEEF    AND    PORK* 

The  following  method  was  for  many  years  success- 
fully practised  by  an  eminent  curer  of  provisions  in 
London,  both  for  exportation  and  home  consumption. 
It  was  communicated  by  this  gentleman  to  the  editor 
of  the  Commercial  Magazine. 

To  1 12  pounds  (1  cwt.)  of  beef  or  pork,  take  ten 
pounds  of  common  salt,  and  half  a  pound  of  salt- 
petre. Let  the  meat  be  well  cleaned  from  those 
particles  of  blood  which  Avill  hang  about  it  when  cut 
into  four  pound  pieces ;  this  is  best  done  by  washing 
it  in  salt  and  water,  or  any  weak  offal  pickle,  provid- 
ed it  be  sweet.  Lay  the  meat  in  rows,  and  rub  the 
upper  side  moderately  with  salt,  then  lay  another 
layer  of  meal,  and  repeat  the  operation  as  on  the  first 
layer  ;  in  this  manner,  continue  the  same  proportion 
of  salt  and  salt-petrc,  till  you  have  the  quantity  you 
wish  to  cure,  all  heaped  up  in  a  tub,  or  some  other 
vessel  (not  of  lead)  in  order  to  preserve  the  pickle 
irom  issuin"-  from  it.  In  this  state  it  must  remain 
for  three  days,  then  turn  it  into  anothe\|'  tub,  sprink- 
ling it  with  salt  as  you  turn  it;  when  all  is  turned, let 
the  pickle  ])rocured  by  the  first  salting,  be  gently 
poured  about  the  meat.  In  this  slate  let  it  remain 
for  a  week,  and  it  will  be  excellent  for  home  use. 

Should  it  be  wanted  for  exportation,  pack  it  in  this 


CURING  BEEF  AND  PORK.  '145 

state  into  such  casks  as  your  order  ma}^  express.— 
But  as  the  greatest  care  for  its  keeping;  good,  abroad, 
consists  in  the  packing,  you  must  first  put  a  layer  of 
salt  in  the  barrel,  then  a  layer  of  meat  packed  very 
close,  (with  your  hands  only)  and  in  this  man- 
ner the  cask  must  be  filled  up.  When  headed  you 
must  carefully  filter  the  pickle  through  a  coarse  cloth, 
(not  boil  it,)  and  when  perfectly  fine,  fill  up  the  cask 
by  the  bung  hole.  In  this  state  let  it  remain  till  the 
next  day,  in  order  to  observe  whether  the  cask  be 
tight  or  not,  then  bung  it  up.  By  this  method  I 
have  never  found  myself  deceived  in  one  single  in- 
stance, in  its  keeping  any  reasonable  length  of  time. 
The  too  great  rubbing  of  meat  will  not  keep  it  the 
better,  it  frequently  retards  the  operation  of  the  salt 
by  filling  the  outward  pores  of  the  meat  only  to  the 
destruction  of  the  middle  of  the  piece,  which  fre- 
quently perishes. 

Observations.  Dr.  Mitchell,  of  Philadelphia,  is  of 
opinion  that  when  meat  is  salted,  a  decomposition 
takes  place  in  the  following  manner,  viz. :  The  sep- 
tic acid  of  the  mdlit  unites  with  the  soda  of  the  salt, 
forming  septate  of  soda,  whilst  the  muriatic  acid 
combines  with  the  animal  fibre,  forming  muriate  of 
fibrine.  Regarding  the  quality  of  the  salt  to  be  used, 
the  following  extract  from  a  report  of  a  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  may  be  worthy  of  attenr 
tion. 

'•  The  common  salt  we  are  informed  by  an  Irish 
member,  is  employed  only  prior  to  the  packing  of 
the  beef,  the  bay  salt  is  used  in  the  packing ;  thus 
both  are  employed,  but  for  difTerent  purposes,  or  at 
least  in  different  branches  of  the  art  of  saltins  beef. 


146  CURING  BEEF  AND  PORK. 

The  British  salt  is  not  used  in  packing  the  beef,  be- 
cause having  undergone  the  process  of  boiling,  it  is 
apt  in  ivm  m  countries^  to  melt  and  slip  from  between 
the  interstices  of  the  beef  and  thus  fail  in  the. object 
of  keeping  it.  The  Irish  beef  has  obtained  its  char- 
acter of  keeping  so  well  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
from  the  bay  salt,  with  which  it  is  cured." 

Bay  salt  is  a  kind  of  brownish  impure  salt,  obtain- 
ed in  France,  Italy,  and  other  countries,  by  evaporat- 
ing sea  water  in  its.  The  priixipal  part,  however 
of  the  bay  salt  which  is  sold  in  Great  Britain,  is  of 
home  manufacture,  being  a  coarse  grained  crystalliz- 
ed salt,  made  dirty  by  powdered  turke}^  umber,  or 
some  such  colouring  material  to  imitate  (he  foreign 
article.  The  only  utility  w^hich  this  salt  appears  to 
possess,  beyond  that  of  the  common  fine  grained  salt 
universally  found  in  the  shops,  is,that  it  dissolves  more 
slowly  by  moisture,  and  therefore  is  better  calculated 
for  the  salting  of  fish,  and  other  animal  matter,  which 
cannot  be  wholly  covered  with  brine. 

Basket  salt  is  made  from  the  water  of  the  salt 
springs  in  Cheshire  and  other  ^aces.  It  differs 
from  the  common  brine  salt  in  the  fineness  of  the 
grain  as  well  as  on  account  of  its  whiteness,  and  pu- 
rity. It  is  principally  used  at  table.  Not  only  is 
muriate  of  soda  an  agreeable  and  wholesome  season- 
ing for  man,  but  almost  all  herbivorous  animals  like  it, 
and  it  appears  to  be  very  salutary  for  them. 

Lord  Somerville  attributes  the  health  of  his  flock 
of  two  hundred  and  three  merino  sheep,  which  he 
purchased  in  Spain,  principally  to  the  use  which  he 
has  made  of  salt  for  the  last  seven  years  on  his  farm. 
These  sheep  having  been  accustomed  to  the  use  of 


CURING  BEEF  AND  PORK.  l47 

salt  in  their  native  land,  his  lordship  considered,  that 
in  this  damp  climate,  and  in  the  rich  land  of  Somer- 
setshire, it  would  be  absolutely  necessary  to  supply 
them  with  it  regularly.    A  ton  of  salt  is  used  annually 
for  every  thousand  sheep ;  a  handful  is  put  in  the 
morning  on  a  flat  stone  or  slate,  ten  of  which,  set  a 
few  yards  apart,  are  enough  for  one  hundred  sheep. 
Twice  a  week   has   been  usually  found  sufficient. 
Of  a  flock  of  near  one  thousand,  there  were  not  ten' 
old  sheep  that  did  not  take  readily  to  it,  and  not  a 
single  lamb  which  did  not  consume  it  greedily.   Salt 
is  likewise  a  preventative  of  disorders  in  stock  fed 
with  rank  green  food,  as  clover  or  turnips,  and  it  is 
deemed  a  specific  for  the  rot.     Horses  and  horned 
cattle  are  also  very  fond  of  salt :  the  cow  gives  more 
and  richer  milk  when  salt  is  mixed  with  her  food. 
The  wild  beasts  of  the  forest,  in  America,  at  certain 
seasons,  leave  their  haunts,  and  travel  in  bodies  to 
various  places  where  salt  is  to  be  found.     These 
places  are  called  licks^  from  the  practice  which  these 
animals  have  of  licking  the  ground  on  which  the  salt 
lies,  or  which  is  Mrongly  impregnated  by  it.*    The 
importance  and  value  of  salt  as  a  corrective  of  food, 
becomes  daily  more  evident,  as  its  medicinal  proper- 
ties are  rendered  more  fully  known.    Among  others 
may  be  mentioned  its  anthelmintic  properties. — 
Whenever  salt  is  denied  to  the  human  being,  dis- 
eases of  the  stomach  are  general,  and  worms  are  en- 
gendered in  the  body.    In  some  instances,  where 
persons  from  aversion  to  this  substance,  have  refused 

*  Cattle  fed  on  grass  which  grows  on  the  sea-shore,  are  alwajs  fatter  and 
in  better  condition  than  thos*  which  graze  on  inland  pastures. 


148  SALT. 

it  either  iu  food,  or  in  any  other  form,  worms  have 
been  engendered,  and  have  been  Avitli  great  difficulty 
got  rid  of. 

Ill  Ireland,  salt  is  a  well  known  common  remedy 
for  bots  in  the  horse  ;  and  among  the  poor  people,  a 
dose  of  common  salt  is  esteemed  a  core  for  the 
worms.  It  is  supposed  hy  some  medicinal  men,  that 
salt  furnishes  soda  to  be  mixed  with  the  bile ;  with- 
out this  necessary  addition,  the  bile  would  be  depriv- 
ed of  the  qualities  necessary  to  assist  in  the  operation 
of  digestion. 

One  of  the  greatest  grievances  of  which  the  poor 
man  can  complain  is  the  want  of  salt.  Many  of  the 
insurrections  and  commotions  among  the  Hindoos, 
have  been  occasioned  by  the  cruel  and  unjust  mono- 
polies of  certain  unworthy  servants  of  the  British 
East  India  Company,  who,  to  aggrandize  their  own 
fortunes,  have  oftentimes  bought  up,  on  speculation, 
all  the  salt  in  the  different  ports  and  markets,  and 
thus  have  deprived  the  ingenious  but  wretched  na- 
tives of  their  only  remaining  comfort,  viz.  salt ;  the 
only  addition  they  are  usually  enal^ftl  to  make  to  their 
poor  pittance  of  rice  !  many  of  the  poor  in  England 
have  loudly  lamented  the  high  price  of  salt,  which 
thousands  are  in  the  habit  of  using  as  the  only  sweet- 
ener of  their  meal  of  potatoes. 

.Salt  is  also  of  the  2;rcatest  use  in  a2;riculture ;  from 
one  to  two  bushels  is  about  sufficient  for  each  acre 
of  land ;  but  this  quantity  is  of  course  to  be  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  soil.  This  answers  bet- 
ter than  almost  any  other  manure.  The  Chinese 
have  for  ages  been  accustomed  to  manure  their 
fields  by  sprinkling  them  Avith  sea  water. 


SALT.  149 

Salt  has  some  other  uses.  The  Persians  sprinkle 
the  timber  of  their  builcUngs  with  salt,  to  prevent 
them  from  rotting.  It  is  used  in  Abyssinia,  instead 
of  money ;  it  passes  there  from  hand  to  hand,  under 
the  shape  of  a  brick,  worth  about  eighteen  pence. 
It  appears  ^ery  probable  that  the  vitrified  fossile 
pillars  in  which  the  Abyssinians  enshrined  the  mum- 
mies of  their  ancestors,  according  to  Herodotus,  were 
nothing  more  than  masses  of  salgem^  a  substance 
very  common  in  that  part  of  Africa. 

Considering  the  many  uses  of  muriate  of  soda  in 
agriculture  and  the  arts ;  and  as  a  necessary  article 
of  food,  and  preservative  from  putrefaction ;  it  may 
be  pronounced  one  of  the  most  general!}'  useful  and 
necessary  to  man  of  all  the  minerals ;  and  it  is  truly 
lamentable,  that  in  almost  all  ages  and  countries, 
(particularly  in  those  where  despotism  has  obtained 
a  footing,)  this  should  be  one  of  those  necessaries  of 
life,  on  which  the  most  heavy  taxes  are  imposed.* 

3Iuriate  of  magnesia,  as  well  as  muriate  of  soda, 
has  been  proved  to  possess  most  powerful  antiseptic 
qualities,  and  is  ♦well  known  to  be  a  constituent  of 
sea  water.  It  would  be  well  worth  trial  by  a  course 
of  experiments,  to  discover  whether  these  salts  sepa- 
rately, or  conjointly,  possess  the  property  of  retard- 
ing putrefaction  in  the  greatest  degree. 

*  It  will  appear  rather  paradoxical  to  many  readers,  to  be  told,  that  salt 
manufactured  in  England, and  for  which  the  natives  pay  twenty  thee  shillings 
a  bushel,  is,  when  transported  across  the  Atlantic,  sold  so  low  as  two  shil- 
lings and  six  pence,  or  half  a  dollar  per  bushel,  in  many  of  the  cities  of  the 
United  States  of  America  ;  and  this  too,  including  all  the  expenses  of  freight, 
land  carriage,  &c.  The  reason  is,  that  for  home  consumption,  the  English 
pay  a  duty  of  seventeen  shillings  and  six  pence  on  every  bushel  they  use. 
The  duty  on  salt  for  agricultural  purposes,  has  recently  been  greatly  re- 
duced. 


150  PRESERVING  MEATS. 

PRESERVATION  OF  ANIMAL  FOOD  FROM  PUTREFACTIOX, 
BY  CHARCOAL. 

Tin  cannisters,  (whose  tops  were  made  to  slide  ii> 
grooves,  in  the  act  of  opening  and  shutting,)  were 
filled  with  charcoal  fumes,  (carbonic  acid  gas,)  to  ex- 
pel the  atmospheric  air.  Alternate  layei^s  of  char- 
coal and  slices  of  meat  were  then  put  in,  so  that  each 
camiister  was  at  length  quite  full ;  one  with  mutton^ 
another  with  beef,  and  a  third  with  pork.  The  lids 
were  now  luted  carefully,  and  a  bladder  was  pasted 
over  the  top  of  each.  The  cannisters  w  ere  put  into 
a  wine  cellar  in  the  month  of  April,  where  they  re- 
mained until  December,  a  period  of  eight  months. 
When  they  were  opened,  the  meat  was  found  to  be 
perfectly  sweet,  and  of  as  good  a  colour  as  any  at 
the  butchers ;.  some  of  the  slices  were  dressed  and 
eaten,  and  were  pronounced  excellent ;  others  were 
kept  for  six  days,  and  did  not  begin  to  putref}^  until 
the  end  of  that  period. 

Observations.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  meat 
might  thus  be  preserved  for  eight  years  instead  of 
eight  months  ;  and  if  some  econorilical  plan  on  the 
same  principle,  could  be  put  in  practice  on  ship- 
board, the  advantages  would  be  incalculable.  Before 
cooking  such  meat,  the  charcoal  of  course  is  to  be 
washed,  scraped,  or  rubbed  off. 

In  an  account  of  the  voyage  of  the  French  discov- 
ery ship,  which  sailed  from  Bordeaux  in  181G,  we 
find  the  following  remarkable  passage. 

"  On  the  route  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  to  Bor- 
deaux, the  ship  only  touched  at  the  \yovi  of  Canton, 
and  at  the  island  of  Mauritius.  One  fact  appears 
truly  singular,  viz.,  that  of  the  flesh-meat  substances 


MAMS..  151 

embarked  at  Bordeaux  in  1816,  whatever  returned 
was  in  a  state  perfectly  sound  and  well  preserved ; 
this  arose  from  making  use  of  the  process  of  M. 
Balguerie,  which  consists  in  placing  the  meat  itt 
three  successive  sprijiklings  of  salt,  and  afterwards 
in  carbonised  brine.  Mutton  dried  in  the  oven  has 
been  well  kept  in  pulverised  charcoal." 

ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  CURING  HAMS,  TONGUES,  &C, 

We  here  quote  the  same  respectable  authority,  as 
in  the  curing  of  meat  by  salting  and  the  use  of  brine. 
"For  pork  and  mutton  hams,  also  for  hung-beef, 
tongues,  &c.  use  the  same  proportion  of  salt  as  be- 
fore, but  instead  of  half  a  pound,  use  a  pound  of  salt- 
petre. Put  the  hams,  &c.  to  soak  all  night  in  salt 
and  water,  in  order  to  extract  the  coagulated  blood  and 
other  viscid  juices  still  retained  therein.  Next  day, 
rub  them  gently  with  the  salt  and  salt-petre ;  then 
place  them  in  a  tub,  one  upon  another,  till  they  are 
all  salted ;  repeat  the  same  every  day  for  one  week. 
By  that  time,  they  will  have  drawn  a  sufficiency  of 
pickle  to  cover  one  half  the  number  salted.  Mix 
with  this  pickle  (let  us  suppose  drawn  from  twenty- 
four  hams)  one  quarter  of  a  pound  of  sal-ammoniac, 
pounded  very  fine,  and  one  pound  of  clean  muscova- 
do sugar,  well  worked  with  a  stick  for  a  few  minutes; 
in  order  to  incorporate  it  with  the  pickle,  pour  it 
gently  over  the  hams  and  turn  them  every  second 
day  for  fourteen  days ;  at  the  expiration  of  which 
time,  take  them  out,  wash  them,  hang  them  up  in  a 
drying  house,  and  keep  them  for  one  week  drying 
without  smoke.  Then  make  a  fire  of  oak-timber, 
which  must  be  covered  three  parts  over  with  oak 


152  HAMS. 

saw-dust  mixed  with  juniper  berries,  and  damped 
with  water.  In  this  state  keep  them  in  the  drying 
house  from  one  to  eight  days.  According  to  this 
method,  and  in  the  above  mentioned  proportions,  I 
cure  from  two  to  three  hundred  hams,  and  great 
quantities  of  hung-beef  and  tongues  per  week,  dur- 
ing the  season,  and  am  happy  to  assert,  that  the 
goods  so  cured,  give  satisfaction  both  at  home  and 
abroad." 

Observations.  As  hams,  beef,  and  tongues,  hung 
up  only  the  time  above  mentioned,  are  not  dry  enough 
for  use,  they  must  then  be  hung  up  in  a  room  mode- 
rately warm,  and  in  a  current  of  air ;  and  when  per- 
fectly dry,  pack  them  up  in  a  box  or  cask  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner.  A  layer  of  hams  and  a  layer  of  malt 
dust  about  three  inches  thick,  till  you  have  packed 
all.  Let  them  remain  in  it;  this  will  prevent  the 
small  hopper-fly  during  the  summer  season,  and  will, 
in  the  course  of  six  weeks,  produce  a  fermentation 
which  will  make  the  hams  completely  hot,  so  that  the 
fat  becomes  transparent.  As  soon  as  this  is  found  to 
be  the  case,  take  them  out  of  the  package,  put  them 
in  bags,  and  hang  them  up  for  use ;  they  will  then 
have  that  flavour  which  is  peculiar  to  the  best  hams. 

Hams,  and  all  other  dry  provisions  eat  better  after 
a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies,  than  they  do  here, 
merely  on  account  of  the  fermentation  they  undergo 
by  a  long  voyage.  This  fermentation  extracts  those 
superfluous  particles  of  salt  which  they  imbibe  in 
the  curing,  makes  the  meat  eat  shorter  and  gives  it 
that  flavour  which  many  ham-eaters  so  much  admire. 


ERRATA. 

Page  56 — line  22— for  tob  read,  to-p. 
67 — line  26— for  spirit  sugar. 

Ill — line  24 — for  precipite  precipitate. 

121— line  13 — for  strained  stirred. 


.1^^fe^,^^t:^('^.;fflr^,^ 


■'<^- 


■»*  •    y-"?". 


